Insulin-Like Growth Factor-I as an Effector Element of the Cytokine IL-4 in the Development of a Leishmania major Infection

Advances in skin gene therapy: utilizing innovative dressing scaffolds for wound healing, a comprehensive review

The skin, serving as the body's outermost layer, boasts a vast area and intricate structure, functioning as the primary barrier against external threats. Disruptions in the composition and functionality of the skin can lead to a diverse array of skin conditions, such as wounds, burns, and diabetic ulcers, along with inflammatory disorders, infections, and various types of skin cancer. These disorders not only exacerbate concerns regarding skin health and beauty but also have a significant impact on mental well-being. Due to the complexity of these disorders, conventional treatments often prove insufficient, necessitating the exploration of new therapeutic approaches. Researchers develop new therapies by deciphering these intricacies and gaining a thorough understanding of the protein networks and molecular processes in skin. A new window of opportunity has opened up for improving wound healing processes because of recent advancements in skin gene therapy. To enhance skin regeneration and healing, this extensive review investigates the use of novel dressing scaffolds in conjunction with gene therapy approaches. Scaffolds that do double duty as wound protectors and vectors for therapeutic gene delivery are being developed using innovative biomaterials. To improve cellular responses and speed healing, these state-of-the-art scaffolds allow for the targeted delivery and sustained release of genetic material. The most recent developments in gene therapy techniques include RNA interference, CRISPR-based gene editing, and the utilization of viral and non-viral vectors in conjunction with scaffolds, which were reviewed here to overcome skin disorders and wound complications. In the future, there will be rare chances to develop custom methods for skin health care thanks to the combination of modern technology and collaboration among disciplines.

The cytokine/chemokine response in Leishmania/HIV infection and co-infection

HIV infection progressively weakens the immune system by infecting and destroying cells involved in host defense. Viral infection symptoms are generated and aggravated as immunosuppression progresses, triggered by the presence of opportunistic infections: among these is leishmaniasis, a disease caused by the intracellular parasite Leishmania. The incidence of this co-infection is growing progressively due to the geographic distribution overlap. Both pathogens infect monocytes/macrophages and dendritic cells, although they can also modulate the activity of other cells without co-infecting, such as T and B lymphocytes. Leishmania/HIV co-infection could be described as a system comprising modulations of cell surface molecule expression, production of soluble factors, and intracellular death activities, leading ultimately to the potentiation of infectivity, replication, and spread of both pathogens. This review describes the cytokine/chemokine response in Leishmania/HIV infection and co-infection, discussing how these molecules modulate the course of the disease and analyzing the therapeutic potential of targeting this network.

Pleiotropic Effect of Hormone Insulin-Like Growth Factor-I in Immune Response and Pathogenesis in Leishmaniases

Leishmaniases are diseases caused by several Leishmania species, and many factors contribute to the development of the infection. Because the adaptive immune response does not fully explain the outcome of Leishmania infection and considering that the initial events are crucial in the establishment of the infection, we investigated one of the growth factors, the insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I), found in circulation and produced by different cells including macrophages and present in the skin where the parasite is inoculated. Here, we review the role of IGF-I in leishmaniasis experimental models and human patients. IGF-I induces the growth of different Leishmania species in vitro and alters the disease outcome increasing the parasite load and lesion size, especially in L. major- and L. amazonensis-infected mouse leishmaniasis. IGF-I affects the parasite interacting with the IGF-I receptor present on Leishmania. During Leishmania-macrophage interaction, IGF-I acts on the arginine metabolic pathway, resulting in polyamine production both in macrophages and Leishmania. IGF-I and cytokines interact with reciprocal influences on their expression. IL-4 is a hallmark of susceptibility to L. major in murine leishmaniasis, but we observed that IGF-I operates astoundingly as an effector element of the IL-4. Approaching human leishmaniasis, patients with mucosal, disseminated, and visceral diseases presented surprisingly low IGF-I serum levels, suggesting diverse effects than parasite growth. We observed that low IGF-I levels might contribute to the inflammatory response persistence and delayed lesion healing in human cutaneous leishmaniasis and the anemia development in visceral leishmaniasis. We must highlight the complexity of infection revealed depending on the Leishmania species and the parasite's developmental stages. Because IGF-I exerts pleiotropic effects on the biology of interaction and disease pathogenesis, IGF-I turns up as an attractive tool to explore biological and pathogenic processes underlying infection development. IGF-I pleiotropic effects open further the possibility of approaching IGF-I as a therapeutical target.

The Role of Macrophage in the Pathogenesis of Osteoporosis

Osteoporosis is a systemic disease with progressive bone loss. The bone loss is associated with an imbalance between bone resorption via osteoclasts and bone formation via osteoblasts. Other cells including T cells, B cells, macrophages, and osteocytes are also involved in the pathogenesis of osteoporosis. Different cytokines from activated macrophages can regulate or stimulate the development of osteoclastogenesis-associated bone loss. The fusion of macrophages can form multinucleated osteoclasts and, thus, cause bone resorption via the expression of IL-4 and IL-13. Different cytokines, endocrines, and chemokines are also expressed that may affect the presentation of macrophages in osteoporosis. Macrophages have an effect on bone formation during fracture-associated bone repair. However, activated macrophages may secrete proinflammatory cytokines that induce bone loss by osteoclastogenesis, and are associated with the activation of bone resorption. Targeting activated macrophages at an appropriate stage may help inhibit or slow the progression of bone loss in patients with osteoporosis.