Comparative Pharmacokinetics of Geniposidic Acid, Genipin-1-β-Gentiobioside, Geniposide, Genipin, and Crocetin in Rats after Oral Administration of Crude Gardeniae Fructus and Its Three Processed Products Using LC-MS/MS

Genipin's potential as an anti-cancer agent: from phytochemical origins to clinical prospects

This comprehensive review delves into the multifaceted aspects of genipin, a bioactive compound derived from medicinal plants, focusing on its anti-cancer potential. The review begins by detailing the sources and phytochemical properties of genipin, underscoring its significance in traditional medicine and its transition into contemporary cancer research. It then explores the intricate relationship between genipin's chemical structure and its observed anti-cancer activity, highlighting the molecular underpinnings contributing to its therapeutic potential. This is complemented by a thorough analysis of preclinical studies, which investigates genipin's efficacy against various cancer cell lines and its mechanisms of action at the cellular level. A crucial component of the review is the examination of genipin's bioavailability and pharmacokinetics, providing insights into how the compound is absorbed, distributed, metabolized, and excreted in the body. Then, this review offers a general and updated overview of the anti-cancer studies of genipin and its derivatives based on its basic molecular mechanisms, induction of apoptosis, inhibition of cell proliferation, and disruption of cancer cell signaling pathways. We include information that complements the genipin study, such as toxicity data, and we differentiate this review by including commercial status, disposition, and regulation. Also, this review of genipin stands out for incorporating information on proposals for a technological approach through its load in nanotechnology to improve its bioavailability. The culmination of this information positions genipin as a promising candidate for developing novel anti-cancer drugs capable of supplementing or enhancing current cancer therapies.

Discrimination between raw and ginger juice processed Fructus Gardeniae based on UHPLC-Q-TOF-MS and Heracles NEO ultra-fast gas phase electronic nose

INTRODUCTION

Fructus Gardeniae (ZZ), a traditional Chinese herb, has been used in treating patients with jaundice, inflammation, etc. When mixed with ginger juice and stir-baked, ginger juice-processed Fructus Gardeniae (JZZ) is produced, and the chemical compositions in ZZ would be changed by adding the ginger juice.

OBJECTIVE

To illuminate the differential components between ZZ and JZZ.

METHODS

HPLC, UHPLC-Q-TOF-MS, and Heracles NEO ultra-fast gas phase electronic nose were applied to identify the differential components between ZZ and JZZ.

RESULTS

HPLC fingerprints of ZZ and JZZ were established, and 24 common peaks were found. The content determination results showed that the contents of shanzhiside, geniposidic acid, genipin-1-β-D-gentiobioside and geniposide increased, while the contents of crocin I and crocin II decreased in JZZ. By UHPLC-Q-TOF-MS, twenty-six possible common components were inferred, among which 11 components were different. In further investigation, eight components were identified as the possible distinctive non-volatile compounds between ZZ and JZZ. By Heracles NEO ultra-fast gas phase electronic nose, four substances were inferred as the possible distinctive volatile compounds in JZZ.

CONCLUSION

Shanzhiside, caffeic acid, genipin-1-β-D-gentiobioside, geniposide, rutin, crocin I, crocin II, and 4-Sinapoyl-5-caffeoylquinic acid were identified as the possible differential non-volatile components between ZZ and JZZ. Aniline, 3-methyl-3-sulfanylbutanol-1-ol, E-3-octen-2-one, and decyl propaonate were inferred as the possible distinctive volatile compounds in JZZ. This experiment explored a simple approach with objective and stable results, which would provide new ideas for studying decoction pieces with similar morphological appearance, especially those with different odors.

Unraveling a Combined Inactivation Mechanism of Cytochrome P450s by Genipin, the Major Reactive Aglycone Derived from Gardeniae Fructus

Genipin (GP) is the reactive aglycone of geniposide, the main component of traditional Chinese medicine Gardeniae Fructus (GF). The covalent binding of GP to cellular proteins is suspected to be responsible for GF-induced hepatotoxicity and inhibits drug-metabolizing enzyme activity, although the mechanisms remain to be clarified. In this study, the mechanisms of GP-induced human hepatic P450 inactivation were systemically investigated. Results showed that GP inhibited all tested P450 isoforms via distinct mechanisms. CYP2C19 was directly and irreversibly inactivated without time dependency. CYP1A2, CYP2C9, CYP2D6, and CYP3A4 T (testosterone as substrate) showed time-dependent and mixed-type inactivation, while CYP2B6, CYP2C8, and CYP3A4 M (midazolam as substrate) showed time-dependent and irreversible inactivation. For CYP3A4 inactivation, the kinact/KI values in the presence or absence of NADPH were 0.26 or 0.16 min-1 mM-1 for the M site and 0.62 or 0.27 min-1 mM-1 for the T site. Ketoconazole and glutathione (GSH) both attenuated CYP3A4 inactivation, suggesting an active site occupation- and reactive metabolite-mediated inactivation mechanism. Moreover, the in vitro and in vivo formation of a P450-dependent GP-S-GSH conjugate indicated the involvement of metabolic activation and thiol residues binding in GP-induced enzyme inactivation. Lastly, molecular docking analysis simulated potential binding sites and modes of GP association with CYP2C19 and CYP3A4. We propose that direct covalent binding and metabolic activation mediate GP-induced P450 inactivation and alert readers to potential risk factors for GP-related clinical drug-drug interactions.

Regeneration of skeletal system with genipin crosslinked biomaterials

Natural biomaterials, such as collagen, gelatin, and chitosan, are considered as promising candidates for use in tissue regeneration treatment, given their similarity to natural tissues regarding components and structure. Nevertheless, only receiving a crosslinking process can these biomaterials exhibit sufficient strength to bear high tensile loads for use in skeletal system regeneration. Recently, genipin, a natural chemical compound extracted from gardenia fruits, has shown great potential as a reliable crosslinking reagent, which can reconcile the crosslinking effect and biosafety profile simultaneously. In this review, we briefly summarize the genipin extraction process, biosafety, and crosslinking mechanism. Subsequently, the applications of genipin regarding aiding skeletal system regeneration are discussed in detail, including the advances and technological strategies for reconstructing cartilage, bone, intervertebral disc, tendon, and skeletal muscle tissues. Finally, based on the specific pharmacological functions of genipin, its potential applications, such as its use in bioprinting and serving as an antioxidant and anti-tumor agent, and the challenges of genipin in the clinical applications in skeletal system regeneration are also presented.