Rosuvastatin Improves Cognitive Function of Chronic Hypertensive Rats by Attenuating White Matter Lesions and Beta-Amyloid Deposits

Neuroprotective Effect of Rosuvastatin Calcium Combined with Hyperbaric Oxygen Mediated p38MAPK Pathway in Rats with Leukoaraiosis

This study explored the neuroprotective mechanism of rosuvastatin calcium (RSC) combined with hyperbaric oxygen (HBO) in rats with leukoaraiosis (LA), and its impact on the p38MAPK signaling pathway (SPW). Clean-grade male SD rats were used as subjects, which were assigned into Sham group (SG), LA group (LAG), RSC group (RSCG), HBO group (HBOG), and RSC + HBO group (combination group, CG), 20 rats in each. At 14 d post-modeling, the effects of RSC, HBO, and RSC + HBO treatment on the cognitive function, brain neuronal cell apoptosis, brain tissue matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) family gene expression, and the status of the p38MAPK SPW in LA rats were analyzed. As against the LAG, the escape latency (EL) was shortened, the count of platform crossings was augmented, the number of brain neuronal cell apoptosis decreased, the relative expression (RE) of brain TIMP-1, MMP-2, MMP-3, and MMP-9 mRNA were reduced (P < 0.05), and the RE of brain cleaved caspase (Cas)-3 and p-p38MAPK proteins were reduced in the RSCG, HBOG, and CG (P < 0.05); As against the RSCG and HBOG, the CG showed more visible improvements in all indicators (P < 0.05). The combination of RSC and HBO can inhibit brain neuronal cell apoptosis and the expression of the MMPs family genes in rats with LA by suppressing the overactivation of the p38MAPK SPW, which is beneficial for the recovery of the rats' cognitive function.

Aging aggravates cognitive dysfunction in spontaneously hypertensive rats by inducing cerebral microvascular endothelial dysfunction

Hypertension in the elderly can seriously lead to cerebral microvascular damage and promote the development of vascular cognitive impairment. While endothelial function is crucial in cerebral microvascular protection, it is unclear whether aging exacerbates hypertension-induced cognitive dysfunction through endothelial dysfunction. In this study, we injected D-galactose (D-gal) into 24 spontaneous hypertension rats (SHR) and 24 Wistar-Kyoto rats (WKY) for 12 weeks to induce aging. Firstly, the results of behavioral experiments showed that compared with WKY and SHRs injected with D-gal for 0 week, SHRs injected with D-gal for 12 weeks had more severe cognitive dysfunction and memory impairment. Subsequently, the pathological results showed that the pathological changes of brain microvessels and their structural and functional damage were more significant. After that, the results of molecular experiments showed enormous changes in endothelial damage indicators (nitric oxide (NO), endothelin (ET-1), platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule-1(CD31) and endothelial tight junction protein), aggravation of blood-brain barrier (BBB) damage, microglial activation and upregulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Ultimately, the combination treatment of nimodipine and butylphthalide in WKY and SHRs injected with D-gal for 12 weeks showed that the two drugs could hugely improve the cognitive dysfunction in SHRs. In summary, we elaborated that aging exacerbates cognitive dysfunction in SHRs, which may be due to cerebral microvascular endothelial dysfunction, and even BBB damage and neuroinflammation, while the combination of nimodipine and butylphthalide can improve cognitive dysfunction in SHRs, providing a theoretical basis for the treatment of aging and hypertension-related diseases.

Vitamin D and rosuvastatin alleviate type-II diabetes-induced cognitive dysfunction by modulating neuroinflammation and canonical/noncanonical Wnt/β-catenin signaling

Background

Type-II diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a major risk factor for cognitive impairment. Protecting the brain environment against inflammation, and neurodegeneration, as well as preservation of the BBB veracity through modulating the crosstalk between insulin/AKT/GSK-3β and Wnt/β-catenin signaling, might introduce novel therapeutic targets.

Purpose

This study aimed at exploring the possible neuroprotective potential of vitamin D3 (VitD) and/or rosuvastatin (RSV) in T2DM-induced cognitive deficits.

Methods

T2DM was induced by a high-fat sucrose diet and a single streptozotocin (STZ) dose. Diabetic rats were allocated into a diabetic control and three groups treated with RSV (15 mg/kg/day, PO), VitD (500 IU/kg/day, PO), or their combination.

Results

Administration of VitD and/or RSV mitigated T2DM-induced metabolic abnormalities and restored the balance between the anti-inflammatory, IL 27 and the proinflammatory, IL 23 levels in the hippocampus. In addition, they markedly activated both the canonical and noncanonical Wnt/β-catenin cassettes with stimulation of their downstream molecular targets. VitD and/or RSV upregulated insulin and α7 nicotinic acetylcholine (α7nACh) receptors gene expression, as well as blood-brain barrier integrity markers including Annexin A1, claudin 3, and VE-cadherin. Also, they obliterated hippocampal ApoE-4 content, Tau hyperphosphorylation, and Aβ deposition. These biochemical changes were reflected as improved behavioral performance in Morris water maze and novel object recognition tests and restored hippocampal histological profile.

Conclusion

The current findings have accentuated the neuroprotective potential of VitD and RSV and provide new incentives to expand their use in T2DM-induced cognitive and memory decline. This study also suggests a superior benefit of combining both treatments over either drug alone.

Targeting the TLR4/NF-κΒ Axis and NLRP1/3 Inflammasomes by Rosuvastatin: A Role in Impeding Ovariectomy-Induced Cognitive Decline Neuropathology in Rats

Postmenopausal hormone-related cognitive decline has gained an immense interest to explore the underlying mechanisms and potential therapies. The current work aimed to study the possible beneficial effect of rosuvastatin (ROS) on the cognitive decline induced by ovariectomy in rats. Four groups were used as follows: control group, control + rosuvastatin, ovariectomy, and ovariectomy + rosuvastatin. After sham operation or ovariectomy, rats were given saline or oral dosages of ROS (2 mg/kg) every day for 30 days. The cognitive functions were assessed using the Morris water maze paradigm, Y-maze test, and new object recognition test. After rat killing, TLR4, caspase-8, and NLRP mRNA expression and protein levels of ASC, AIM2, caspase-1, NLRP1, and PKR were measured in hippocampus. This was complemented by the estimation of tissue content of NF-κΒ, IL-1β, and IL-18 and serum lipid profile quantification. Rosuvastatin showed a promising potential for halting the cognitive impairments induced by estrogen decline through interfering with the TLR4/NF-κΒ/NLRP1/3 axis and inflammasomes activation and the subsequent pyroptosis. This was complemented by the amendment in the deranged lipid profile. Rosuvastatin may exert a beneficial role in attenuating the inflammatory and apoptotic signaling mechanisms associated with postmenopausal cognitive decline. Further investigations are needed to unveil the relationship between deranged plasma lipids and cognitive function.

A comparison of the effects of monotherapy with rosuvastatin, atorvastatin or ezetimibe versus combination treatment with rosuvastatin-ezetimibe and atorvastatin-ezetimibe on the integrity of vascular endothelial cells damaged by oxidized cholesterol

Dyslipidemia, atherosclerosis, and cardiovascular events can be prevented, or treated, using statins, alone or in combination with ezetimibe. The aim of the study was to compare the direct pleiotropic effects of two commonly-used statins (atorvastatin, rosuvastatin), ezetimibe and their combinations on endothelial cells damaged by oxidized cholesterol. HUVEC cultures were stimulated for 20 hours with atorvastatin (5 μM; 2793 ng/mL), rosuvastatin (10 μM; 4815 ng/mL), ezetimibe (1.22 μM; 500 ng/mL), atorvastatin plus ezetimibe (5 μM + 1.22 μM; 2793 ng/mL + 500 ng/mL) and rosuvastatin plus ezetimibe (10 μM + 1.22 μM; 4815 ng/mL + 500ng/mL) in separate groups, with or without 25-hydroxycholesterol pre-incubation (24.83 μM; 10 μg/mL; four hours then washout). HUVEC integrity was measured in the RTCA-DP xCELLigence system. The mRNA expression and protein levels of ZO-1, OCLN, ICAM-1 were analyzed by real-time PCR and ELISA. Pre-incubation with 25-OHC resulted in decreased endothelial cell integrity (p<0.001), decreased expression of ZO-1 mRNA (p<0.05) and protein levels (p<0.05), OCLN mRNA (p<0.05) and protein levels (p<0.05) and increased ICAM-1 mRNA (p<0.001) and protein levels (p<0.001) compared to the control group. Incubation with rosuvastatin (12h p<0.01; 24h p<0.001) and atorvastatin (only 12h p<0.05) restored HUVEC integrity. Subsequent incubation with rosuvastatin increased ZO-1 mRNA (p<0.001) and protein (p<0.001) levels. Subsequent addition of ezetimibe increased ZO-1 mRNA level (p<0.001) but not protein level. Furthermore, only incubation with rosuvastatin increased OCLN mRNA (p<0.05) and protein (p<0.05) levels. In each drug-stimulated group, both ICAM-1 mRNA and protein levels were reduced after initial incubation with oxysterol (p<0.05). 25-hydroxycholesterol disrupts endothelial integrity, decreases the mRNA and protein levels of tight junction, and increases those of intercellular adhesion molecules. Both rosuvastatin and atorvastatin can improve endothelial integrity, but only rosuvastatin can completely abolish the effect of oxysterol. The combination of statins with ezetimibe has less direct effect on the endothelial barrier than the statins alone.

Effects of Combined Anti-Hypertensive and Statin Treatment on Memory, Fear Extinction, Adult Neurogenesis, and Angiogenesis in Adult and Middle-Aged Mice

Hyperlipidemia and hypertension are modifiable risk factors for cognitive decline. About 25% of adults over age 65 use both antihypertensives (AHTs) and statins to treat these conditions. Recent research in humans suggests that their combined use may delay or prevent dementia onset. However, it is not clear whether and how combination treatment may benefit brain function. To begin to address this question, we examined effects of atorvastatin, a 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase inhibitor, and Captopril, an angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor (ACEI), administration on memory function, anxiety-like behavior, adult hippocampal neurogenesis and angiogenesis in adult and middle-aged male C57Bl/6J mice. In adult mice (3-months-old) combination (combo) treatment, as well as administration of each compound individually, for six weeks, accelerated memory extinction in contextual fear conditioning. However, pattern separation in the touchscreen-based location discrimination test, a behavior linked to adult hippocampal neurogenesis, was unchanged. In addition, dentate gyrus (DG) neurogenesis and vascularization were unaffected. In middle-aged mice (10-months-old) combo treatment had no effect on spatial memory in the Morris water maze, but did reduce anxiety in the open field test. A potential underlying mechanism may be the modest increase in new hippocampal neurons (~20%) in the combo as compared to the control group. DG vascularization was not altered. Overall, our findings suggest that statin and anti-hypertensive treatment may serve as a potential pharmacotherapeutic approach for anxiety, in particular for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) patients who have impairments in extinction of aversive memories.