Antimalarial Activity of Aqueous and 80% Methanol Crude Seed Extracts and Solvent Fractions of Schinus molle Linnaeus (Anacardiaceae) in Plasmodium berghei-Infected Mice

Acute toxicity and genotoxicity of Schinus molle L. aqueous extract/ethanol-soluble fraction in rats

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Schinus molle L. is a medicinal species belonging to the Anacardiaceae family. It is commonly referred to as "aroeira" and its leaves and roots are utilized for treating different pathological conditions. However, despite its widespread use in traditional medicine, there is a lack of in-depth toxicological studies.

AIM

To evaluate the acute toxicity and genotoxicity of S. molle aqueous extract/ethanol-soluble fraction in rats.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

First, a purified aqueous extract was obtained from the leaves of S. mole through infusion (referred to as EESM) and its compounds were identified using LC-DAD-MS data. Female rats were then subjected to acute oral toxicity tests using doses of 5, 50, 300, and 2000 mg/kg of ESSM. Studies on genetic material, including the micronucleus test and comet assay, were conducted on male and female Wistar rats using the same doses as in the acute toxicity test. For both assays, ESSM was administered orally.

RESULTS

The main metabolites annotated from ESSM were dimeric proanthocyanidins, phenylpropanoids acids, flavan-3-ols, simple organic acids (C6-C1), a flavonol di-O-glycosylated (rutin), and O-glycosylated megastigmane. The ESSM did not exhibit any acute toxic effects, such as changes in biochemical, hematologic, or histopathological analysis. Furthermore, no changes were observed in comet assay or micronucleus tests when rats were given doses of 5, 50, 300, or 2000 mg/kg of ESSM.

CONCLUSION

The results showed that the ESSM does not induce acute toxicity or exhibit genotoxicity up to a dose of 2000 mg/kg.

Antimalarial efficacy test of the aqueous crude leaf extract of Coriandrum sativum Linn.: an in vivo multiple model experimental study in mice infected with Plasmodium berghei

BACKGROUND

Malaria continues to wreak havoc on the well-being of the community. Resistant parasites are jeopardizing the treatment. This is a wake-up call for better medications. Folk plants are the key starting point for antimalarial drug discovery. After crushing and mixing the leaves of Coriandrum sativum with water, one cup of tea is drunk daily for a duration of three to five days as a remedy for malaria by local folks in Ethiopia. Additionally, in vitro experiments conducted on the plant leaf extract elsewhere have also demonstrated the plant's malaria parasite inhibitory effect. There has been no pharmacologic research to assert this endowment in animals, though. This experiment was aimed at evaluating the antimalarial efficacy of C. sativum in Plasmodium berghei infected mice.

METHODS

The plant's leaf was extracted using maceration with distilled water. The extract was examined for potential acute toxicity. An evaluation of secondary phytoconstituents was done. Standard antimalarial screening models (prophylactic, chemosuppressive, curative tests) were utilized to assess the antiplasmodial effect. In each test, thirty mice were organized into groups of five. To the three categories, the test substance was given at doses of 100, 200 and 400 mg/kg/day before or after the commencement of P. berghei infection. Positive and negative control mice were provided Chloroquine and distilled water, respectively. Rectal temperature, parasitemia, body weight, survival time and packed cell volume were ultimately assessed. Analysis of the data was performed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences.

RESULTS

No toxicity was manifested in mice. The extract demonstrated a significant inhibition of parasitemia (p < 0.05) in all the models. The inhibition of parasite load was highest with the upper dose in the suppressive test (82.74%) followed by the curative procedure (78.49%). Likewise, inhibition of hypothermia, weight loss hampering, improved survival and protection against hemolysis were elicited by the extract.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of our experimental study revealed that the aqueous crude leaf extract of C. sativum exhibits significant antimalarial efficacy in multiple in vivo models involving mice infected with P. berghei. Given this promising therapeutic attribute, in depth investigation on the plant is recommended.

In vivo antimalarial activity of the 80% methanolic crude fruit extract of Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standl. against Plasmodium berghei infected mice

Background

Malaria is a public health menace. Resistance to therapeutic armamentarium is impeding its control. Therefore, research targeting the discovery of novel antimalarial drug arsenals is a priority. The important point to begin the search for such drugs is the folkloric medicinal plants. Ripe fruit of Lagenaria siceraria is bored, rinsed with cold water, and one glass is used as a drink early in the morning for the treatment of malaria in Ethiopian folk medicine. In vivo antimalarial efficacy of the plant was not affirmed scientifically, though. Consequently, the present study was conducted to assess the in vivo antiplasmodial effect of Lagenaria siceraria in P. berghei infected mice.

Methods

The fruits were extracted using 80% methanol in water. Acute toxicity test was conducted on the extract. Secondary phytochemicals were assessed. The four day suppressive test was employed in mice infected with P. berghei. Thirty mice were grouped in to five and inoculated with P. berghei. After 3 h, three of the groups received the extract at doses 100, 200 and 400 mg/kg. The remaining groups served as negative (2% Tween80) and positive control (chloroquine). Parasitemia, packed cell volume, weight, temperature and survival time were monitored. SPSS version 22 was used for data analysis.

Results

No toxicity was seen in mice. The crude extract elicited significant suppression (p < 0.05) of the parasite compared to the negative control. The highest parasite suppression (77.37%) was measured at the upper dose. Furthermore, the crude extract significantly (p < 0.05) prevented body weight loss, anemia, reduction in temperature and prolonged the survival time compared to the negative control.

Conclusion

This study asserted that the fruit of Lagenaria siceraria is enriched with in vivo antimalarial activity. Hence, further in depth antimalarial investigations on the plant is strongly recommended.

Medicinal plants used in traditional treatment of malaria in Ethiopia: a review of ethnomedicine, anti-malarial and toxicity studies

Background

Malaria is extremely common in Ethiopia, and it is one of the country's most serious public health and economic problems. Traditional medicines have long been utilized in Ethiopia by people of various ethnic groups. As a result, the goal of this study is to record the use of Ethiopian medicinal herbs that have been used to treat malaria. Also, a critical review of the literature on the therapeutic properties of these and other Ethiopian medicinal plants that have been tested against Plasmodium spp. parasites was conducted with the goal of highlighting neglected studies and fostering further research in this area.

Methods

A comprehensive literature search was performed in Scopus, Web of Science Core Collection, PubMed, Science Direct, Google Scholar, and Scientific Electronic Library Online (SciELO) from August 2021 to October 2021. The study databases included original articles published in peer reviewed journals covering anti-malarial plants, dated until October 2021.

Results

The review looked at 51 plant species (28 families) that have been used to treat malaria in Ethiopia. The most often used ethnobotanical plant species for the treatment of malaria were Allium sativum, Croton macrostachyus, Carica papaya, and Lepidium sativum. Leaves were used more frequently as a therapeutic preparation than other parts. Plant extracts were found to have very good, good, and moderate anti-malarial activity in mice with rodent Plasmodium species. The most active species were Ajuga remota and Capsicum frufescens, which suppressed parasitaemia by 77.34% and 72.65%, respectively, at an oral dose of 100 mg/kg and an LD50 of above 2000 mg/kg. The compound Aloinoside reported from Aloe macrocarpa leave latex was the most potent; it suppressed parasitaemia by 100% at 400 mg/kg oral dose of Plasmodium berghei infected mice, and its LD50 was above 2000 mg/kg. Toxicity was shown to be safe in 84% of the plant extracts.

Conclusion

In Ethiopia, medicinal plants have a significant part in reducing the severity of malaria due to their widespread use. As a result, more studies are needed to identify and develop effective novel drugs that could be employed in broader malaria eradication efforts.

Evaluation of Antimalarial Potential of Extracts from Alstonia boonei and Carica papaya in Plasmodium berghei-Infected Mice

Extracts of Alstonia boonei and Carica papaya are used in herbal medicine for the treatment of malaria. This work investigated the phytochemical, antioxidant, and antimalarial effects of hydromethanolic extracts of Alstonia boonei and Carica papaya. A four-day chemosuppressive test was conducted to assess the ability of the extracts to prevent establishment of infection. Three doses of the extracts were administered—100, 200, and 400 mg/kg bw—prior to Plasmodium berghei challenge. Change in body weight, parasitemia, packed cell volume (PCV), and mean survival time was determined. A three-day curative test was also carried out on Plasmodium berghei-infected mice to determine the effects of the plant extracts (200 mg/kg bw) on parasitemia and biochemical indices of liver and kidney functions, lipid metabolism, and oxidative stress. The study revealed that the extracts possessed phenolic compounds (34.13 ± 1.90 mg GAE/g for Alstonia boonei and 27.99 ± 1.46 mg GAE/g for Carica papaya) and flavonoids (19.47 ± 1.89 mg QE/g for Alstonia boonei and 18.24 ± 1.36 mg QE/g for Carica papaya). In vitro antioxidant activity measured as total antioxidant power, total reducing power, and DPPH radical scavenging activity showed that the extracts possessed higher antioxidant activity than the reference compounds. The outcome of the chemosuppressive test revealed that whereas Plasmodium berghei-infected mice had high parasitemia, decreased mean survival time, exhibited loss of weight, and had low PCV, treatment with the extracts reversed the effects in a concentration-dependent manner. Similarly, the curative test revealed that the extracts significantly suppressed parasitemia compared with the malaria negative control group. This was mirrored by reversal of indices of hepatic toxicity (AST, ALT, and ALP levels), nephropathy (urea and creatinine levels), oxidative stress (SOD, CAT, GPx, GSH, and lipid peroxides), and dyslipidemia (TC, HDL, and TG levels and HMG-CoA reductase activity) in infected but treated mice compared with negative control. Put together, the results of this study demonstrate that the extracts of Alstonia boonei and Carica papaya possess antimalarial properties and are able to ameliorate metabolic dysregulations that characterize Plasmodium berghei infection. The phytoconstituents in these extracts are believed to be responsible for the pharmacological activity reported in this study.

Inonotus rickii (Agaricomycetes, Hymenochaetaceae) in Brazilian Cerrado: Expanding Its Geographic Distribution and Host List

Inonotus rickii (Pat.) Reid (Agaricomycetes: Hymenochaetaceae) is a poroid fungus characterized by the expressive production of chlamydospores, in vivo and in vitro, especially during its anamorphic stage. The species plays important ecological roles, standing out as a phytopathogen, affecting several species of ornamental and wild trees, mainly in tropical and subtropical regions. The infected trees develop canker and white rot of the wood, showing symptoms of reduced vegetative vigor and decline of leaves and branches which causes death in some cases. The first record of I. rickii for the Cerrado biome (Brazilian Savanna) and the first record as causal agent of canker in Schinus molle L. in Brazil is reported here. In addition, we present a checklist of its worldwide geographical distribution and known hosts, from an extensive bibliographic search in Google Scholar, SciELO, Scopus, and Web of Science databases. The species is widespread in tropical and subtropical zones; common in the American continent, especially in Central and South America and the Mediterranean region, and rare in temperate zones. We found specimens growing in both living and dead hosts, totalizing 70 species of hosts, distributed in 43 genera and 22 families. Of these, Acer negundo L. (10.5%), Celtis australis L. (6.5%), and Platanus acerifolia (Aiton) Willd. (4.8%), and the Fabaceae (30%), Fagaceae (10%), and Sapindaceae (8.6%) families were the most frequent. We present morphological descriptions and illustrations, as well as the growth characteristics in culture medium. Our study expands the known geographical distribution of I. rickii, including the Cerrado biome, as well as its structural, physiological characteristics, and its hosts.

Medicinal plants as a fight against murine blood-stage malaria

OBJECTIVE

Malaria is an infectious parasitic disease affecting most of countries worldwide. Due to antimalarial drug resistance, researchers are seeking to find another safe efficient source for treatment of malaria. Since many years ago, medicinal plants were widely used for the treatment of several diseases. In general, most application is done first on experimental animals then human. In this article, medicinal plants as antimalarial agents in experimental animals were reviewed from January 2000 until November 2020.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this systematic review published articles were reviewed using the electronic databases NCBI, ISI Web of knowledge, ScienceDirect and Saudi digital library to check articles and theses for M.Sc/Ph.D. The name of the medicinal plant with its taxon ID and family, the used Plasmodium species, plant part used and its extract type and the country of harvest were described.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

The reviewed plants belonged to 83 families. Medicinal plants of families Asteraceae, Meliaceae Fabaceae and Lamiaceae are the most abundant for use in laboratory animal antimalarial studies. According to region, published articles from 33 different countries were reviewed. Most of malaria published articles are from Africa especially Nigeria and Ethiopia. Leaves were the most common plant part used for the experimental malaria research. In many regions, research using medicinal plants to eliminate parasites and as a defensive tool is popular.

Antimalarial Activity of Seed Extracts of Schinus molle Against Plasmodium berghei in Mice

Background.

Malaria is a major public health problem in developing countries. In Ethiopian, the seeds of Schinus molle are used for the management of malaria. Therefore, the current study aimed to evaluate in vivo antimalarial activity of hydro-alcoholic crude extract and solvent fractions of Schinus molle seeds in Plasmodium berghei infected mice.

Methods.

An 80 percent of methanolic crude extract and solvent fractions of Schinus molle seeds were tested for antimalarial activity at 100, 200 and 400 mg/kg doses. The parasitemia level, packed cell volume, body weight, survival of date and rectal temperature were used to evaluate the anti-malarial activity of the extracts. One-way ANOVA followed by post hoc Tukey’s HSD multiple comparison test was employed and the result was expressed in mean ± SEM (standard error of the mean).

Results.

The curative activity of the highest dose of crude extract and aqueous fraction of Schinus molle seeds was 69.86% and 73.82% (p < 0.001), respectively. In the prophylactic test, aqueous fraction had 72.39% (p < 0.001) suppression antimalarial activity. Among solvent fractions, only chloroform fraction was significantly attenuated packed cell volume reduction. The mice treated with crude extract and aqueous fraction had longer survival date than vehicle-treated mice (p < 0.001).

Conclusion.

The experiment finding showed that the crude extract and solvent fractions of Schinus molle seeds had significant curative and prophylaxis anti-plasmodial activity. This result revealed that the Schinus molle seeds extract has promising antimalarial activity against Plasmodium berghei. However, further confirmatory studies, isolation and characterization of the active constituents are recommended.

In Vivo Antimalarial Activity of Crude Fruit Extract of Capsicum frutescens Var. Minima (Solanaceae) against Plasmodium berghei-Infected Mice

BACKGROUND

The alarming spread of parasite resistance to current antimalarial agents is threatening malaria controlling efforts. This, consequently, urged the scientific community to discover novel antimalarial drugs. Successful and most potent antimalarial drugs were obtained from medicinal plants. Capsicum frutescens is claimed to possess an antiplasmodial activity in Ethiopian and Ugandan folkloric medicine. However, there is a lack of pharmacological evidence for its antiplasmodial activity. This study, hence, was aimed at evaluating the in vivo antiplasmodial activity of C. frutescens in a mouse model.

METHODS

The dried fruits of the plant were extracted with 80% methanol using cold maceration. A 4-day suppressive test was employed to ascertain the claimed antiplasmodial effect of the plant. Following inoculation with P. berghei, mice in treatment groups were provided with three dose levels (100, 200, and 400 mg/kg) of the extract, while 2% Tween 80 and chloroquine served as the negative and positive controls, respectively. Weight, temperature, packed cell volume, parasitemia, and survival time were then monitored.

RESULTS

The acute oral toxicity study revealed that the crude extract caused no mortality and revealed no overt sign of toxicity. In the 4-day suppressive test, all dose levels of the extract were found to exhibit a significant (p < 0.05) inhibition of parasitemia compared to those of the negative control. Maximum parasite suppression (93.28%) was exerted by the highest dose (400 mg/kg/day) of extract. Also, the extract significantly (p < 0.05) prolonged survival time and prevented body weight loss and reduction in temperature and anemia compared to the vehicle-treated group.

CONCLUSION

This investigation found strong evidence that the fruit extract of C. frutescens is endowed with promising antiplasmodial activity. Hence, the plant could serve as a potential source of a newer antimalarial agent.

Antimalarial Activity of the Leaf Latex of Aloe weloensis (Aloaceae) against Plasmodium berghei in Mice

Background

Emergence of drug resistance and lack of therapeutic efficacy of modern antimalarial drugs are the most triggering factors for the searching of new lead compounds with different mechanisms of action. Medicinal plants with documented traditional uses are a viable option for treatment of malaria. Traditionally, the leaf latex of Aloe weloensis has been used in the treatment of malaria in Ethiopia. Hence, this study was undertaken to investigate the antimalarial activity of the leaf latex of Aloe weloensis in Plasmodium berghei-infected mice.

Methods

A four-day suppressive test was employed to evaluate the antimalarial effect of the leaf latex of the plant against P. berghei in Swiss albino mice. Mice were randomly assigned in five groups of five animals in each and given 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg of the leaf latex, chloroquine 25 mg/kg, and distilled water. The level of parasitemia, packed cell volume, survival time, temperature, and body weight was used to determine the antimalarial activity.

Results

The acute toxicity study indicated that the leaf latex of A. weloensis caused neither mortality nor signs and symptoms of toxicity at a dose of 2000 mg/kg. Furthermore, the 4-day suppressive test indicated that the latex of the plant exhibited a significant parasitemia reduction in a dose-dependent manner as compared to negative control. The leaf latex of the plant exhibited a percent inhibition of 13.05%, 41.87%, and 66.84% at doses of 100 mg/kg, 200 mg/kg, and 400 mg/kg, respectively. The chemosuppression of the antimalarial activity was statistically significant at 100 mg/kg (p < 0.05), 200 mg/kg (p < 0.01), and 400 mg/kg (p < 0.01) as compared to negative control. All doses of the leaf latex prevented weight loss and reduction in temperature and packed cell volume and increased the survival time of infected mice.

Conclusion

The results of this study demonstrated that the leaf latex of Aloe weloensis possessed antiplasmodial activity confirming the genuine traditional use of the plant as an antimalarial agent.

Antimicrobial Testing of Schinus molle (L.) Leaf Extracts and Fractions Followed by GC-MS Investigation of Biological Active Fractions

Schinus molle (L.) is a dioecious plant of the Anacardiaceae family, originating in South America and currently widespread in many regions throughout the world. In this work leaf extracts and derived low-pressure column chromatography (LPCC) fractions of S. molle L. male and female plants were investigated for the antimicrobial activity. Leaf extracts were tested on microbes Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Candida albicans and Bacillus subtilis. Furthermore, the extracts showing antimicrobial activity were fractionated by LPCC and the obtained fractions tested on the same microorganism strains. Positive fractions were investigated by gas-chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and were seen to be rich in sesquiterpenes, sesquiterpenoids and other terpens. The obtained effects highlighted the antimicrobial properties of S. molle (L.) leaf compounds and revealed their importance as a source of bioactive molecules of potential pharmaceutical interest. To our knowledge, this is the first paper reporting investigations on the chemical composition of the extracts and derived positive fractions from Schinus molle (L.) plants grown in central Italy