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Assefa M, Girmay G. Mycobacterium tuberculosis Biofilms: Immune Responses, Role in TB Pathology, and Potential Treatment. Immunotargets Ther 2024; 13:335-342. [PMID: 38974843 PMCID: PMC11227863 DOI: 10.2147/itt.s455744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2024] [Accepted: 06/28/2024] [Indexed: 07/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) is a major public health problem worldwide, and the burden of drug-resistant TB is rapidly increasing. Although there are literatures about the Mtb biofilms, their impact on immune responses has not yet been summarized. This review article provides recent knowledge on Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) biofilm-immunity interactions, their importance in pulmonary TB pathology, and immune-based therapy targeting Mtb biofilms. Pellicle/biofilm formation in Mtb contributes to drug resistance, persistence, chronicity, surface attachment, transfer of resistance genes, and modulation of the immune response, including reduced complement activation, changes in the expression of antigenic proteins, enhanced activation of T-lymphocytes, elevated local IFNγ+ T cells, and strong antibody production. The combination of anti-TB drugs and anti-biofilm agents has recently become an effective strategy to improve TB treatment. Additionally, immune-targeted therapy and biofilm-based vaccines are crucial for TB prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muluneh Assefa
- Department of Medical Microbiology, School of Biomedical and Laboratory Sciences, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia
| | - Getu Girmay
- Department of Immunology and Molecular Biology, School of Biomedical and Laboratory Sciences, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia
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Flores-Gonzalez J, Urbán-Solano A, Ramón-Luing LA, Cancino-Diaz JC, Contreras-Rodriguez A, Curiel-Quesada E, Hernández-Pando R, Chavez-Galan L. Active tuberculosis patients have high systemic IgG levels and B-cell fingerprinting, characterized by a reduced capacity to produce IFN-γ or IL-10 as a response to M.tb antigens. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1263458. [PMID: 38022616 PMCID: PMC10643169 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1263458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2023] [Accepted: 10/10/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Tuberculosis (TB) is a bacterial infection caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M.tb). B cells are the central mediator of the humoral response; they are responsible for producing antibodies in addition to mediating other functions. The role of the cellular response during the TB spectrum by B cells is still controversial. Methods In this study, we evaluated the distribution of the circulating B cell subsets in patients with active and latent TB (ATB and LTB, respectively) and how they respond to stimuli of protein or lipid from M.tb. Results Here, we show that ATB patients show an immune fingerprinting. However, patients with drug-sensitive- (DS-TB) or drug-resistant- (DR-TB) TB have altered frequencies of circulating B cells. DS-TB and DR-TB display a unique profile characterized by high systemic levels of IFN-γ, IL-10, IgG, IgG/IgM ratio, and total B cells. Moreover, B cells from DR-TB are less efficient in producing IL-10, and both DS-TB and DR-TB produce less IFN-γ in response to M.tb antigens. Conclusion These results provide new insights into the population dynamics of the cellular immune response by B cells against M.tb and suggest a fingerprinting to characterize the B-cell response on DR-TB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julio Flores-Gonzalez
- Laboratory of Integrative Immunology, Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Respiratorias Ismael Cosio Villegas, Mexico City, Mexico
- Department of Microbiology, Laboratory of Immunomicrobiology, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Alexia Urbán-Solano
- Laboratory of Integrative Immunology, Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Respiratorias Ismael Cosio Villegas, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Lucero A. Ramón-Luing
- Laboratory of Integrative Immunology, Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Respiratorias Ismael Cosio Villegas, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Juan Carlos Cancino-Diaz
- Department of Microbiology, Laboratory of Immunomicrobiology, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Araceli Contreras-Rodriguez
- Department of Microbiology, Laboratory of Immunomicrobiology, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Everardo Curiel-Quesada
- Department of Biochemistry, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Rogelio Hernández-Pando
- Department of Pathology, Section of Experimental Pathology, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Leslie Chavez-Galan
- Laboratory of Integrative Immunology, Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Respiratorias Ismael Cosio Villegas, Mexico City, Mexico
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Sampath P, Rajamanickam A, Thiruvengadam K, Natarajan AP, Hissar S, Dhanapal M, Thangavelu B, Jayabal L, Ramesh PM, Ranganathan UD, Babu S, Bethunaickan R. Plasma chemokines CXCL10 and CXCL9 as potential diagnostic markers of drug-sensitive and drug-resistant tuberculosis. Sci Rep 2023; 13:7404. [PMID: 37149713 PMCID: PMC10163852 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-34530-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2023] [Accepted: 05/03/2023] [Indexed: 05/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) diagnosis still remains to be a challenge with the currently used immune based diagnostic methods particularly Interferon Gamma Release Assay due to the sensitivity issues and their inability in differentiating stages of TB infection. Immune markers are valuable sources for understanding disease biology and are easily accessible. Chemokines, the stimulant, and the shaper of host immune responses are the vital hub for disease mediated dysregulation and their varied levels in TB disease are considered as an important marker to define the disease status. Hence, we wanted to examine the levels of chemokines among the individuals with drug-resistant, drug-sensitive, and latent TB compared to healthy individuals. Our results demonstrated that the differential levels of chemokines between the study groups and revealed that CXCL10 and CXCL9 as potential markers of drug-resistant and drug-sensitive TB with better stage discriminating abilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pavithra Sampath
- Department of Immunology, ICMR-National Institute for Research in Tuberculosis (ICMR-NIRT), No.1. Mayor Sathyamoorthy Road, Chetpet, Chennai, 600 031, India
| | | | - Kannan Thiruvengadam
- Department of Statistics, ICMR-National Institute for Research in Tuberculosis (ICMR-NIRT), Chennai, India
| | | | - Syed Hissar
- Department of Clinical Research, ICMR-National Institute for Research in Tuberculosis (ICMR-NIRT), Chennai, India
| | - Madhavan Dhanapal
- Department of Immunology, ICMR-National Institute for Research in Tuberculosis (ICMR-NIRT), No.1. Mayor Sathyamoorthy Road, Chetpet, Chennai, 600 031, India
| | - Bharathiraja Thangavelu
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, ICMR-National Institute for Research in Tuberculosis (ICMR-NIRT), Chennai, India
| | | | | | - Uma Devi Ranganathan
- Department of Immunology, ICMR-National Institute for Research in Tuberculosis (ICMR-NIRT), No.1. Mayor Sathyamoorthy Road, Chetpet, Chennai, 600 031, India
| | - Subash Babu
- ICMR-NIRT-NIH-International Center for Excellence in Research, Chennai, India
| | - Ramalingam Bethunaickan
- Department of Immunology, ICMR-National Institute for Research in Tuberculosis (ICMR-NIRT), No.1. Mayor Sathyamoorthy Road, Chetpet, Chennai, 600 031, India.
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Zhu Q, Liu J. A united model for diagnosing pulmonary tuberculosis with random forest and artificial neural network. Front Genet 2023; 14:1094099. [PMID: 36968608 PMCID: PMC10033863 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2023.1094099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2022] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 03/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB) is a chronic infectious disease and is the most common type of TB. Although the sputum smear test is a gold standard for diagnosing PTB, the method has numerous limitations, including low sensitivity, low specificity, and insufficient samples.Methods: The present study aimed to identify specific biomarkers of PTB and construct a model for diagnosing PTB by combining random forest (RF) and artificial neural network (ANN) algorithms. Two publicly available cohorts of TB, namely, the GSE83456 (training) and GSE42834 (validation) cohorts, were retrieved from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database. A total of 45 and 61 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified between the PTB and control samples, respectively, by screening the GSE83456 cohort. An RF classifier was used for identifying specific biomarkers, following which an ANN-based classification model was constructed for identifying PTB samples. The accuracy of the ANN model was validated using the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve. The proportion of 22 types of immunocytes in the PTB samples was measured using the CIBERSORT algorithm, and the correlations between the immunocytes were determined.Results: Differential analysis revealed that 11 and 22 DEGs were upregulated and downregulated, respectively, and 11 biomarkers specific to PTB were identified by the RF classifier. The weights of these biomarkers were determined and an ANN-based classification model was subsequently constructed. The model exhibited outstanding performance, as revealed by the area under the curve (AUC), which was 1.000 for the training cohort. The AUC of the validation cohort was 0.946, which further confirmed the accuracy of the model.Conclusion: Altogether, the present study successfully identified specific genetic biomarkers of PTB and constructed a highly accurate model for the diagnosis of PTB based on blood samples. The model developed herein can serve as a reliable reference for the early detection of PTB and provide novel perspectives into the pathogenesis of PTB.
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Park J, Hong Y, Hong JY. Risk for multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in patients treated with anti-tumor necrosis factor agents. Front Med (Lausanne) 2023; 10:1108119. [PMID: 37035321 PMCID: PMC10073508 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2023.1108119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2022] [Accepted: 03/06/2023] [Indexed: 04/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Background There are few studies on medical conditions associated with the development of drug-resistant TB. Objective We investigated the risk factors for the occurrence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) tuberculosis (TB) in patients with pulmonary TB. Materials and methods Based on claims data from the Health Insurance Review and Assessment service in South Korea, we retrospectively investigated patients aged 18 years or older with active pulmonary TB who were treated with anti-TB therapy between January 1, 2008, and February 28, 2021. Results Among 248,176 patients with pulmonary TB who underwent anti-TB therapy, 2.0% were identified as having MDR-TB. MDR-TB showed male predominance compared to patients without MDR-TB, and patients with MDR-TB were younger. The risk for MDR-TB in patients treated with anti-TB therapy was 3.26 times higher in patients who received anti-tumor necrosis factor (TNF) agents before prescription of anti-TB medications than in those who had never been exposed to anti-TNF agents after adjusting for other TB risk factors (age, sex, inhaled corticosteroid, diabetes mellitus, liver disease, pneumoconiosis, and organ or blood recipients). The risk for MDR-TB was also increased in males and younger patients. Conclusion Treatment with an anti-TNF agent could be a driver of MDR-TB in patients with pulmonary TB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinkyeong Park
- Department of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine, Kyung Hee University Hospital at Gangdong, School of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Yoonki Hong
- Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, Kangwon National University, Kangwon National University Hospital, Chuncheon, Republic of Korea
| | - Ji Young Hong
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Chuncheon Sacred Heart Hospital, Hallym University Medical Center, Chuncheon, Gangwon-do, Republic of Korea
- *Correspondence: Ji Young Hong,
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Liebenberg D, Gordhan BG, Kana BD. Drug resistant tuberculosis: Implications for transmission, diagnosis, and disease management. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:943545. [PMID: 36211964 PMCID: PMC9538507 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.943545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2022] [Accepted: 09/06/2022] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Drug resistant tuberculosis contributes significantly to the global burden of antimicrobial resistance, often consuming a large proportion of the healthcare budget and associated resources in many endemic countries. The rapid emergence of resistance to newer tuberculosis therapies signals the need to ensure appropriate antibiotic stewardship, together with a concerted drive to develop new regimens that are active against currently circulating drug resistant strains. Herein, we highlight that the current burden of drug resistant tuberculosis is driven by a combination of ongoing transmission and the intra-patient evolution of resistance through several mechanisms. Global control of tuberculosis will require interventions that effectively address these and related aspects. Interrupting tuberculosis transmission is dependent on the availability of novel rapid diagnostics which provide accurate results, as near-patient as is possible, together with appropriate linkage to care. Contact tracing, longitudinal follow-up for symptoms and active mapping of social contacts are essential elements to curb further community-wide spread of drug resistant strains. Appropriate prophylaxis for contacts of drug resistant index cases is imperative to limit disease progression and subsequent transmission. Preventing the evolution of drug resistant strains will require the development of shorter regimens that rapidly eliminate all populations of mycobacteria, whilst concurrently limiting bacterial metabolic processes that drive drug tolerance, mutagenesis and the ultimate emergence of resistance. Drug discovery programs that specifically target bacterial genetic determinants associated with these processes will be paramount to tuberculosis eradication. In addition, the development of appropriate clinical endpoints that quantify drug tolerant organisms in sputum, such as differentially culturable/detectable tubercle bacteria is necessary to accurately assess the potential of new therapies to effectively shorten treatment duration. When combined, this holistic approach to addressing the critical problems associated with drug resistance will support delivery of quality care to patients suffering from tuberculosis and bolster efforts to eradicate this disease.
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Murine RAW Macrophages Are a Suitable Model to Study the CD3 Signaling in Myeloid Cells. Cells 2022; 11:cells11101635. [PMID: 35626672 PMCID: PMC9139304 DOI: 10.3390/cells11101635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2022] [Revised: 05/06/2022] [Accepted: 05/10/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
In recent years, a growing body of evidence has shown the presence of a subpopulation of macrophages that express CD3, especially in the context of mycobacterial infections. Despite these findings, the function of these cells has been poorly understood. Furthermore, the low frequency of CD3+ macrophages in humans limits the study of this subpopulation. This work aimed to evaluate the expression of CD3 in a murine macrophage cell line and its potential for the study of CD3 signaling. The murine macrophage cell line RAW was used to evaluate CD3 expression at the transcriptional and protein levels and the effect of in vitro infection with the Mycobacterium bovis Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) on these. Our data showed that RAW macrophages express CD3, both the ε and ζ chains, and it is further increased at the transcriptional level after BCG infection. Furthermore, our data suggest that CD3 can be found on the cell surface and intracellularly. However, this molecule is internalized constantly, mainly after activation with anti-CD3 stimulus, but interestingly, it is stably maintained at the transcriptional level. Finally, signaling proteins such as NFAT1, c-Jun, and IKK-α are highly expressed in RAW macrophages. They may play a role in the CD3-controlled signaling pathway to deliver inflammatory cytokines such as TNF and IL-6. Our study provides evidence to support that RAW cells are a suitable model to study the function and signaling of the CD3 complex in myeloid cells.
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Chavez-Galan L, Becerril C, Ruiz A, Ramon-Luing LA, Cisneros J, Montaño M, Salgado A, Ramos C, Buendía-Roldán I, Pardo A, Selman M. Fibroblasts From Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis Induce Apoptosis and Reduce the Migration Capacity of T Lymphocytes. Front Immunol 2022; 13:820347. [PMID: 35222396 PMCID: PMC8866565 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.820347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2021] [Accepted: 01/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a progressive and irreversible lung disease of unknown etiology. Myofibroblasts are organized in peculiar subepithelial fibroblasts foci (FF), where they abnormally persist and exclude lymphocytes by unclear mechanisms. FF are the source of an excessive extracellular matrix, which results in progressive stiffening and destruction of the lung architecture. We hypothesized that the absence of T cells inside the FF could be related, at least partially, to an inefficient function of lymphocytes induced by IPF fibroblasts. Here, we evaluated the effect of a supernatant from IPF fibroblasts on T-cell apoptosis and migration capacity. Data showed that IPF fibroblasts secrete pro-apoptotic molecules (both from extrinsic and intrinsic pathways), generating a microenvironment that induces apoptosis of T cells at 3 h of culture, despite a weak anti-apoptotic profile exhibited by these T cells. At 24 h of culture, the supernatants from both IPF and control fibroblasts provoked T-cell death. However, at this time of culture, IPF fibroblasts caused a marked decrease in T-cell migration; in contrast, control lung fibroblasts induced an increase of T-cell migration. The reduction of T-cell migratory capacity provoked by IPF fibroblasts was associated with a negative regulation of RHOA and ROCK, two essential GTPases for migration, and was independent of the expression of chemokine receptors. In conclusion, our findings demonstrate that IPF fibroblasts/myofibroblasts induce apoptosis and affect T-cell migration, revealing a mechanism involved in the virtual absence of T lymphocytes inside the FF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leslie Chavez-Galan
- Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Respiratorias, "Ismael Cosío Villegas", Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Carina Becerril
- Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Respiratorias, "Ismael Cosío Villegas", Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Andy Ruiz
- Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Respiratorias, "Ismael Cosío Villegas", Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Lucero A Ramon-Luing
- Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Respiratorias, "Ismael Cosío Villegas", Mexico City, Mexico
| | - José Cisneros
- Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Respiratorias, "Ismael Cosío Villegas", Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Martha Montaño
- Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Respiratorias, "Ismael Cosío Villegas", Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Alfonso Salgado
- Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Respiratorias, "Ismael Cosío Villegas", Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Carlos Ramos
- Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Respiratorias, "Ismael Cosío Villegas", Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Ivette Buendía-Roldán
- Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Respiratorias, "Ismael Cosío Villegas", Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Annie Pardo
- Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Moisés Selman
- Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Respiratorias, "Ismael Cosío Villegas", Mexico City, Mexico
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Ramon-Luing LA, Carranza C, Téllez-Navarrete NA, Medina-Quero K, Gonzalez Y, Torres M, Chavez-Galan L. Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Rv Strain Increases the Frequency of CD3 +TCR + Macrophages and Affects Their Phenotype, but Not Their Migration Ability. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 23:ijms23010329. [PMID: 35008755 PMCID: PMC8745617 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23010329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2021] [Revised: 12/21/2021] [Accepted: 12/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In mycobacterial infections, the number of cells from two newly discovered subpopulations of CD3+ myeloid cells are increased at the infection site; one type expresses the T cell receptor (CD3+TCRαβ+) and the other does not (CD3+TCRαβ−). The role of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) virulence in generating these subpopulations and the ability of these cells to migrate remains unclear. In this study, monocyte-derived macrophages (MDMs) infected in vitro with either a virulent (H37Rv) or an avirulent (H37Ra) Mtb strain were phenotypically characterized based on three MDM phenotypes (CD3−, CD3+TCRαβ+, and CD3+TCRαβ−); then, their migration ability upon Mtb infection was evaluated. We found no differences in the frequency of CD3+ MDMs at 24 h of infection with either Mtb strain. However, H37Rv infection increased the frequency of CD3+TCRαβ+ MDMs at a multiplicity of infection of 1 and altered the expression of CD1b, CD1c, and TNF on the surface of cells from both the CD3+ MDM subpopulations; it also modified the expression of CCR2, CXCR1, and CCR7, thus affecting CCL2 and IL-8 levels. Moreover, H37Rv infection decreased the migration ability of the CD3− MDMs, but not CD3+ MDMs. These results confirm that the CD3+ macrophage subpopulations express chemokine receptors that respond to chemoattractants, facilitating cell migration. Together, these data suggest that CD3+ MDMs are a functional subpopulation involved in the immune response against Mtb.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucero A. Ramon-Luing
- Laboratory of Integrative Immunology, Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Respiratorias Ismael Cosío Villegas, Mexico City 14080, Mexico; (L.A.R.-L.); (N.A.T.-N.)
| | - Claudia Carranza
- Laboratory of Tuberculosis Immunobiology, Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Respiratorias Ismael Cosio Villegas, Mexico City 14080, Mexico; (C.C.); (M.T.)
| | - Norma A. Téllez-Navarrete
- Laboratory of Integrative Immunology, Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Respiratorias Ismael Cosío Villegas, Mexico City 14080, Mexico; (L.A.R.-L.); (N.A.T.-N.)
| | - Karen Medina-Quero
- Laboratory of Immunology, Escuela Militar de Graduados de Sanidad, Mexico City 11200, Mexico;
| | - Yolanda Gonzalez
- Department of Microbiology, Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Respiratorias Ismael Cosio Villegas, Mexico City 14080, Mexico;
| | - Martha Torres
- Laboratory of Tuberculosis Immunobiology, Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Respiratorias Ismael Cosio Villegas, Mexico City 14080, Mexico; (C.C.); (M.T.)
| | - Leslie Chavez-Galan
- Laboratory of Integrative Immunology, Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Respiratorias Ismael Cosío Villegas, Mexico City 14080, Mexico; (L.A.R.-L.); (N.A.T.-N.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +52-(55)-54871700 (ext. 5270)
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