Personalized, multivalent, and more affordable: the globalization of vaccines

Application of pharmacogenomics to vaccines

The field of pharmacogenomics and pharmacogenetics provides a promising science base for vaccine research and development. A broad range of phenotype/genotype data combined with high-throughput genetic sequencing and bioinformatics are increasingly being integrated into this emerging field of vaccinomics. This paper discusses the hypothesis of the 'immune response gene network' and genetic (and bioinformatic) strategies to study associations between immune response gene polymorphisms and variations in humoral and cellular immune responses to prophylactic viral vaccines, such as measles-mumps-rubella, influenza, HIV, hepatitis B and smallpox. Immunogenetic studies reveal promising new vaccine targets by providing a better understanding of the mechanisms by which gene polymorphisms may influence innate and adaptive immune responses to vaccines, including vaccine failure and vaccine-associated adverse events. Additional benefits from vaccinomic studies include the development of personalized vaccines, the development of novel vaccines and the development of novel vaccine adjuvants.

Interleukin-13 receptor alpha 2, EphA2, and Fos-related antigen 1 as molecular denominators of high-grade astrocytomas and specific targets for combinatorial therapy

PURPOSE

We investigated the expression of interleukin-13 receptor alpha2 (IL-13R alpha 2), EphA2, and Fos-related antigen 1 (Fra-1) in astrocytomas and normal brain. We sought to document whether the expression of the three factors changed with progression to higher grade malignancy and whether two or three targets in combination might be sufficient to target all patients with high-grade astrocytomas.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Immunohistochemistry was done for IL-13R alpha 2, EphA2, and Fra-1 using human brain tumor tissue microarrays containing 30 specimens of WHO grades II and III astrocytomas, 46 glioblastoma multiformes (GBM), and 9 normal brain samples. Sections were scored based on frequency and intensity of expression. Western blotting was done for all three markers using GBM tumor specimens and xenograft cell lines. Two cytotoxins, IL-13.E13K.PE38QQR and ephrinA1-PE38QQR, which target IL-13R alpha 2 or EphA2, respectively, were tested for cytotoxicity against human GBM primary explant cells and established cells.

RESULTS

Expression of all three proteins was significantly higher in GBM compared with normal brain, low-grade, and anaplastic astrocytomas. Greater than 95% of GBM overexpressed at least two of the three markers. Importantly, every GBM overexpressed at least one marker. Human GBM primary explant cells and cell lines were potently killed by IL-13.E13K.PE38QQR and ephrinA1-PE38QQR, in accordance with their level of expression of IL-13R alpha 2 and EphA2, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

IL-13R alpha 2, EphA2, and Fra-1 are attractive therapeutic targets representing molecular denominators of high-grade astrocytomas. One hundred percent of GBM tumors overexpress at least one of these proteins, providing the basis for rational combinatorial targeted therapies/diagnostics suitable for all patients with this disease.