Combinations of Bevacizumab and Erlotinib Show Activity in Colorectal Cancer Independent of RAS Status

New clinical trial design in precision medicine: discovery, development and direction

In the era of precision medicine, it has been increasingly recognized that individuals with a certain disease are complex and different from each other. Due to the underestimation of the significant heterogeneity across participants in traditional "one-size-fits-all" trials, patient-centered trials that could provide optimal therapy customization to individuals with specific biomarkers were developed including the basket, umbrella, and platform trial designs under the master protocol framework. In recent years, the successive FDA approval of indications based on biomarker-guided master protocol designs has demonstrated that these new clinical trials are ushering in tremendous opportunities. Despite the rapid increase in the number of basket, umbrella, and platform trials, the current clinical and research understanding of these new trial designs, as compared with traditional trial designs, remains limited. The majority of the research focuses on methodologies, and there is a lack of in-depth insight concerning the underlying biological logic of these new clinical trial designs. Therefore, we provide this comprehensive review of the discovery and development of basket, umbrella, and platform trials and their underlying logic from the perspective of precision medicine. Meanwhile, we discuss future directions on the potential development of these new clinical design in view of the "Precision Pro", "Dynamic Precision", and "Intelligent Precision". This review would assist trial-related researchers to enhance the innovation and feasibility of clinical trial designs by expounding the underlying logic, which be essential to accelerate the progression of precision medicine.

Next-generation sequencing identifies potential novel therapeutic targets in Chinese HGSOC patients

BACKGROUND

Targeted therapy, especially the use of poly (adenosine diphosphate ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibitors (PARPis), has improved the outcome of patients with ovarian cancer. However, most high-grade serous ovarian cancer (HGSOC) patients have wild-type BRCA1/2, and it is necessary to disclose more potential novel targets for other available targeted drugs. So, detection of genetic alterations beyond BRCA1/2 is critical to screen HGSOC patients for personalized therapy. In this study, a broad, hybrid capture-based next-generation sequencing (NGS) assay was used to identify actionable genetic alterations from HGSOC cancer tissues.

METHODS

Sixty-eight patients with HGSOC were enrolled, including 6 International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) stage I, 15 stage II, 37 stage III and 10 stage IV patients. All patients signed informed consent forms. Potentially actionable genetic alterations, including base substitutions, indels, copy number alterations, and gene fusions, were identified using targeted NGS.

RESULTS

In our study, 14.7% (10/68) of the tumors harbored actionable genetic alterations in patients with BRCA1. A total of 25.0% (17/68) of patients without BRCA1 mutations harbored other actionable genetic alterations, such as homologous recombination repair (HRR) pathway-related genes (ATM, CDK12, FANCA, and FANCD2), PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway genes (NF1, FBXW7, PIK3CA, PTEN, TSC1, and TSC2), and some other genes (ARID1A, FGFR1, KRAS, and NRAS). Furthermore, some patients harboring ARID1A or NF1 actionable genetic alterations showed good clinical efficacy to immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) and everolimus, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Our research indicates that 39.7% (27/68) of patients with HGSOC harbored at least one actionable genetic alteration. 25.0% (17/68) of patients had somatic mutations or copy number variations beyond BRCA1 mutations and might be treated with off-label therapy or to be allocated into clinical trial. NGS assays of HGSOC patients are necessary to screen actionable genetic alterations to guide personalized and precise treatment.

MiR-323a regulates ErbB3/EGFR and blocks gefitinib resistance acquisition in colorectal cancer

The rapid onset of resistance to epidermal growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor (EGFR-TKI) limits its clinical utility in colorectal cancer (CRC) patients, and pan-erb-b2 receptor tyrosine kinase (ErbB) treatment strategy may be the alternative solution. The aim of this study was to develop a possible microRNA multi-ErbB treatment strategy to overcome EGFR-TKI resistance. We detect the receptor tyrosine kinase activity in gefitinib-resistant colorectal cancer cells, ErbB3/EGFR is significantly activated and provides a potential multi-ErbB treatment target. MiR-323a-3p, a tumor suppressor, could target both ErbB3 and EGFR directly. Apoptosis is the miR-323a-3p inducing main biological process by functional enrichment analysis, and The EGFR and ErbB signaling are the miR-323a-3p inducing main pathway by KEGG analysis. MiR-323a-3p promotes CRC cells apoptosis by targeting ErbB3-phosphoinositide 3‐kinases (PI3K)/PKB protein kinase (Akt)/glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta (GSK3β)/EGFR-extracellular regulated MAP kinase (Erk1/2) signaling directly. And miR-323a-3p, as a multi-ErbBs inhibitor, increase gefitinib sensitivity of the primary cell culture from combination miR-323a-3p and gefitinib treated subcutaneous tumors. MiR-323a-3p reverses ErbB3/EGFR signaling activation in gefitinib-resistant CRC cell lines and blocks acquired gefitinib resistance.

Regulation of signal transduction pathways in colorectal cancer: implications for therapeutic resistance

Resistance to anti-cancer treatments is a critical and widespread health issue that has brought serious impacts on lives, the economy and public policies. Mounting research has suggested that a selected spectrum of patients with advanced colorectal cancer (CRC) tend to respond poorly to both chemotherapeutic and targeted therapeutic regimens. Drug resistance in tumours can occur in an intrinsic or acquired manner, rendering cancer cells insensitive to the treatment of anti-cancer therapies. Multiple factors have been associated with drug resistance. The most well-established factors are the emergence of cancer stem cell-like properties and overexpression of ABC transporters that mediate drug efflux. Besides, there is emerging evidence that signalling pathways that modulate cell survival and drug metabolism play major roles in the maintenance of multidrug resistance in CRC. This article reviews drug resistance in CRC as a result of alterations in the MAPK, PI3K/PKB, Wnt/β-catenin and Notch pathways.

A human antibody against human endothelin receptor type A that exhibits antitumor potency

Endothelin receptor A (ET_A), a class A G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR), is involved in the progression and metastasis of colorectal, breast, lung, ovarian, and prostate cancer. We overexpressed and purified human endothelin receptor type A in Escherichia coli and reconstituted it with lipid and membrane scaffold proteins to prepare an ET_A nanodisc as a functional antigen with a structure similar to that of native GPCR. By screening a human naive immune single-chain variable fragment phage library constructed in-house, we successfully isolated a human anti-ET_A antibody (AG8) exhibiting high specificity for ET_A in the β-arrestin Tango assay and effective inhibitory activity against the ET-1-induced signaling cascade via ET_A using either a CHO-K1 cell line stably expressing human ET_A or HT-29 colorectal cancer cells, in which AG8 exhibited IC₅₀ values of 56 and 51 nM, respectively. In addition, AG8 treatment repressed the transcription of inhibin βA and reduced the ET_A-induced phosphorylation of protein kinase B and extracellular regulated kinase. Furthermore, tumor growth was effectively inhibited by AG8 in a colorectal cancer mouse xenograft model. The human anti-ET_A antibody isolated in this study could be used as a potential therapeutic for cancers, including colorectal cancer.

A therapeutic antibody that targets a receptor involved in cancer progression shows significant anti-cancer effects in trials in mice. Endothelin receptor A (ET_A) promotes the progression and metastasis of several cancers, and patients with high ET_A expression often have poor survival rates. Several small molecule drugs that target ET_A are currently undergoing trials. Now, Sang Taek Jung at the Korea University in Seoul, together with scientists across South Korea, have identified and isolated a human antibody that specifically binds to ET_A. The team developed an antigen that mimics ET_A, and identified and isolated the antibody it bound to. The antibody exhibited potent anti-tumor effects in cell cultures and trials in mice. Such therapeutic antibodies show higher affinity for their targets than other drugs, resulting in fewer side effects and higher efficacy.

Bufalin suppresses tumour microenvironment-mediated angiogenesis by inhibiting the STAT3 signalling pathway

BACKGROUND

Antiangiogenic therapy has increasingly become an important strategy for the treatment of colorectal cancer. Recent studies have shown that the tumour microenvironment (TME) promotes tumour angiogenesis. Bufalin is an active antitumour compound whose efficacy has been indicated by previous studies. However, there are very few studies on the antiangiogenic effects of bufalin.

METHODS

Herein, human umbilical vein endothelial cell (HUVEC) tube formation, migration and adhesion tests were used to assess angiogenesis in vitro. Western blotting and quantitative PCR were used to detect relevant protein levels and mRNA expression levels. A subcutaneous xenograft tumour model and a hepatic metastasis model were established in mice to investigate the influence of bufalin on angiogenesis mediated by the TME in vivo.

RESULTS

We found that angiogenesis mediated by cells in the TME was significantly inhibited in the presence of bufalin. The results demonstrated that the proangiogenic genes in HUVECs, such as VEGF, PDGFA, E-selectin and P-selectin, were downregulated by bufalin and that this downregulation was mediated by inhibition of the STAT3 pathway. Overexpression of STAT3 reversed the inhibitory effects of bufalin on angiogenesis. Furthermore, there was little reduction in angiogenesis when bufalin directly acted on the cells in the tumour microenvironment.

CONCLUSION

Our findings demonstrate that bufalin suppresses tumour microenvironment-mediated angiogenesis by inhibiting the STAT3 signalling pathway in vascular endothelial cells, revealing that bufalin may be used as a new antiangiogenic adjuvant therapy medicine to treat colorectal cancer.

Cetuximab-Mediated Protection from Hypoxia- Induced Cell Death: Implications for Therapy Sequence in Colorectal Cancer

Simple Summary

Therapeutic antibodies are an integral part of treatment regimens for metastasized colorectal cancer. In KRAS wildtype tumors both bevacizumab and cetuximab are active. While bevacizumab has previously been shown to induce tumor hypoxia, we here report that EGFR inhibition by cetuximab protects colon cancer cells from hypoxia-induced cell death. This effect appears to be responsible for the inferior efficacy of a treatment sequence of bevacizumab followed by cetuximab versus an inverse sequence that we observed in a colorectal cancer mouse model. It also offers a mechanistic explanation for effects observed in clinical trials such as underadditive or even detrimental effects when combining bevacizumab and cetuximab (CAIRO2 trial) and the superior efficacy of first line cetuximab (FIRE-3 trial) under chemotherapy backbones in colorectal cancer.

Abstract

Monoclonal antibodies like cetuximab, targeting the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), and bevacizumab, targeting the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), are an integral part of treatment regimens for metastasized colorectal cancer. However, inhibition of the EGFR has been shown to protect human glioma cells from cell death under hypoxic conditions. In colon carcinoma cells, the consequences of EGFR blockade in hypoxia (e.g., induced by bevacizumab) have not been evaluated yet. LIM1215 and SW948 colon carcinoma and LNT-229 glioblastoma cells were treated with cetuximab, PD153035, and erlotinib and analyzed for cell density and viability. The sequential administration of either cetuximab followed by bevacizumab (CET->BEV) or bevacizumab followed by cetuximab (BEV->CET) was investigated in a LIM1215 (KRAS wildtype) and SW948 (KRAS mutant) xenograft mouse model. In vitro, cetuximab protected from hypoxia. In the LIM1215 model, a survival benefit with cetuximab and bevacizumab monotherapy was observed, but only the sequence CET->BEV showed an additional benefit. This effect was confirmed in the SW948 model. Our observations support the hypothesis that bevacizumab modulates the tumor microenvironment (e.g., by inducing hypoxia) where cetuximab could trigger protective effects when administered later on. The sequence CET->BEV therefore seems to be superior as possible mutual adverse effects are bypassed.

Genome-Wide Identification of a Novel Autophagy-Related Signature for Colorectal Cancer

Background:

Plenty of evidence has suggested that autophagy plays a crucial role in the biological processes of cancers. This study aimed to screen autophagy-related genes (ARGs) and establish a novel a scoring system for colorectal cancer (CRC).

Methods:

Autophagy-related genes sequencing data and the corresponding clinical data of CRC in The Cancer Genome Atlas were used as training data set. The GSE39582 data set from the Gene Expression Omnibus was used as validation set. An autophagy-related signature was developed in training set using univariate Cox analysis followed by stepwise multivariate Cox analysis and assessed in the validation set. Then we analyzed the function and pathways of ARGs using Gene Ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) database. Finally, a prognostic nomogram combining the autophagy-related risk score and clinicopathological characteristics was developed according to multivariate Cox analysis.

Results:

After univariate and multivariate analysis, 3 ARGs were used to construct autophagy-related signature. The KEGG pathway analyses showed several significantly enriched oncological signatures, such as p53 signaling pathway, apoptosis, human cytomegalovirus infection, platinum drug resistance, necroptosis, and ErbB signaling pathway. Patients were divided into high- and low-risk groups, and patients with high risk had significantly shorter overall survival (OS) than low-risk patients in both training set and validation set. Furthermore, the nomogram for predicting 3- and 5-year OS was established based on autophagy-based risk score and clinicopathologic factors. The area under the curve and calibration curves indicated that the nomogram showed well accuracy of prediction.

Conclusions:

Our proposed autophagy-based signature has important prognostic value and may provide a promising tool for the development of personalized therapy.

Exploratory findings from a prematurely closed international, multicentre, academic trial: RAVELLO, a phase III study of regorafenib versus placebo as maintenance therapy after first-line treatment in RAS wild-type metastatic colorectal cancer

Background

In patients with RAS wild-type (WT) metastatic colorectal cancer (mCRC), the role of maintenance therapy after first-line treatment with chemotherapy plus antiepidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) monoclonal antibodies (MoAb) is still an object of debate.

Methods

We assessed the efficacy and safety of regorafenib as a switch maintenance strategy after upfront 5-fluorouracil-based chemotherapy plus an anti-EGFR MoAb in patients with RAS WT mCRC. RAVELLO was a phase III, international, double-blind, placebo-controlled, academic trial. The primary endpoint was progression-free survival (PFS). Secondary endpoints included overall survival and toxicity. Regorafenib or placebo were administered daily for 3 weeks of 4-week cycle until disease progression or unacceptable toxicity, up to 24 months.

Results

The study was stopped prematurely due to slow accrual and lack of funding after the randomisation of 21 patients: 11 in the regorafenib arm and 10 in the placebo arm. The small sample size precludes any statistical analysis. Toxicity was acceptable and consistent with the known regorafenib safety profile. Median PFS was similar in the two arms. However, a subgroup of patients treated with regorafenib experienced a remarkably long PFS. Three patients were progression free at 9 months in the regorafenib arm versus one patient in the placebo arm, whereas at 12 months two regorafenib-treated patients were still progression free versus none in the placebo arm.

Conclusion

RAVELLO trial demonstrated that growing financial and bureaucratic hurdles affect the feasibility of independent academic research. Although stopped prematurely and within the limited sample size, RAVELLO suggests that regorafenib has not a major activity in maintenance setting after upfront chemotherapy and anti-EGFR MoAb. However, a subgroup of patients experienced a remarkable long PFS, indicating that a better refinement of the patient population would help to identify subjects that might benefit from a regorafenib personalised approach in the switch maintenance setting.

Short-term 3D culture systems of various complexity for treatment optimization of colorectal carcinoma

Three-dimensional (3D) cultures have the potential to increase the predictive value of pre-clinical drug research and bridge the gap towards anticipating clinical outcome of proposed treatments. However, their implementation in more advanced drug-discovery programs is still in its infancy due to the lack of reproducibility and low time- and cost effectiveness. HCT116, SW620 and DLD1 cells, cell lines with distinct mutations, grade and origin, were co-cultured with fibroblasts and endothelial cells (EC) in 3D spheroids. Clinically relevant drugs, i.e. 5-fluorouracil (5−FU), regorafenib and erlotinib, were administered individually to in CRC cell cultures. In this study, we established a robust, low-cost and reproducible short-term 3D culture system addressing the various complexities of the colorectal carcinoma (CRC) microenvironment. We observed a dose-dependent increase of erlotinib sensitivity in 3D (co-)cultures compared to 2D cultures. Furthermore, we compared the drug combination efficacy and drug-drug interactions administered in 2D, 3D and 3D co-cultures. We observed that synergistic/additive drug-drug interactions for drug combinations administered at low doses shifted towards additive and antagonistic when applied at higher doses in metastatic CRC cells. The addition of fibroblasts at various ratios and EC increased the resistance to some drug combinations in SW620 and DLD1 cells, but not in HCT116. Retreatment of SW620 3D co-cultures with a low-dose 3-drug combination was as active (88% inhibition, relative to control) as 5-FU treatment at high dose (100 μM). Moreover, 3D and 3D co-cultures responded variably to the drug combination treatments, and also signalling pathways were differently regulated, probably due to the influence of fibroblasts and ECs on cancer cells. The short-term 3D co-culture system developed here is a powerful platform for screening (combination) therapies. Understanding of signalling in 3D co-cultures versus 3D cultures and the responses in the 3D models upon drug treatment might be beneficial for designing anti-cancer therapies.

Inhibition of SIRT2 limits tumour angiogenesis via inactivation of the STAT3/VEGFA signalling pathway

Mounting evidence has demonstrated that angiogenesis plays an important role in tumour progression. However, the key regulators in tumour angiogenesis remain unclear. Recently, emerging reports have indicated that SIRT2 plays critical roles in proliferation, metastasis and tumourigenesis in diverse tumours. However, the function of SIRT2 in tumour angiogenesis and the mechanism underlying the regulation of angiogenesis by SIRT2 are still unknown. Here, we found that SIRT2 was upregulated in colorectal cancer tissues compared to that in normal samples and that the elevated SIRT2 was associated with poor prognosis in patients with colorectal cancer. In addition, a series of in vitro and in vivo experiments were performed to demonstrate the role of SIRT2 in tumour angiogenesis. We showed that silencing SIRT2 significantly suppressed tumour angiogenesis. Mechanistically, the knockdown of SIRT2 inhibited STAT3 phosphorylation, causing decreased secretion of VEGFA. Notably, we found that SIRT2 directly interacted with STAT3 and affected the phosphorylation of STAT3 and the translocation of phosphorylated STAT3 to the nucleus. Importantly, a series of rescue experiments suggested that the function of SIRT2 in tumour angiogenesis depends on the STAT3/VEGFA signalling pathway. Our findings provide insight into the important role of SIRT2 in colon tumour angiogenesis and suggest that SIRT2/STAT3/VEGFA might be a novel prognostic biomarker and a potential therapeutic target for patients with colorectal cancer.