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A Cell's Fate: An Overview of the Molecular Biology and Genetics of Apoptosis. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20174133. [PMID: 31450613 PMCID: PMC6747454 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20174133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2019] [Revised: 07/15/2019] [Accepted: 07/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Apoptosis is one of the main types of regulated cell death, a complex process that can be triggered by external or internal stimuli, which activate the extrinsic or the intrinsic pathway, respectively. Among various factors involved in apoptosis, several genes and their interactive networks are crucial regulators of the outcomes of each apoptotic phase. Furthermore, mitochondria are key players in determining the way by which cells will react to internal stress stimuli, thus being the main contributor of the intrinsic pathway, in addition to providing energy for the whole process. Other factors that have been reported as important players of this intricate molecular network are miRNAs, which regulate the genes involved in the apoptotic process. Imbalance in any of these mechanisms can lead to the development of several illnesses, hence, an overall understanding of these processes is essential for the comprehension of such situations. Although apoptosis has been widely studied, the current literature lacks an updated and more general overview on this subject. Therefore, here, we review and discuss the mechanisms of apoptosis, highlighting the roles of genes, miRNAs, and mitochondria involved in this type of cell death.
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Ames E, Canter RJ, Grossenbacher SK, Mac S, Chen M, Smith RC, Hagino T, Perez-Cunningham J, Sckisel GD, Urayama S, Monjazeb AM, Fragoso RC, Sayers TJ, Murphy WJ. NK Cells Preferentially Target Tumor Cells with a Cancer Stem Cell Phenotype. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2015; 195:4010-9. [PMID: 26363055 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1500447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 155] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2015] [Accepted: 08/10/2015] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Increasing evidence supports the hypothesis that cancer stem cells (CSCs) are resistant to antiproliferative therapies, able to repopulate tumor bulk, and seed metastasis. NK cells are able to target stem cells as shown by their ability to reject allogeneic hematopoietic stem cells but not solid tissue grafts. Using multiple preclinical models, including NK coculture (autologous and allogeneic) with multiple human cancer cell lines and dissociated primary cancer specimens and NK transfer in NSG mice harboring orthotopic pancreatic cancer xenografts, we assessed CSC viability, CSC frequency, expression of death receptor ligands, and tumor burden. We demonstrate that activated NK cells are capable of preferentially killing CSCs identified by multiple CSC markers (CD24(+)/CD44(+), CD133(+), and aldehyde dehydrogenase(bright)) from a wide variety of human cancer cell lines in vitro and dissociated primary cancer specimens ex vivo. We observed comparable effector function of allogeneic and autologous NK cells. We also observed preferential upregulation of NK activation ligands MICA/B, Fas, and DR5 on CSCs. Blocking studies further implicated an NKG2D-dependent mechanism for NK killing of CSCs. Treatment of orthotopic human pancreatic cancer tumor-bearing NSG mice with activated NK cells led to significant reductions in both intratumoral CSCs and tumor burden. Taken together, these data from multiple preclinical models, including a strong reliance on primary human cancer specimens, provide compelling preclinical evidence that activated NK cells preferentially target cancer cells with a CSC phenotype, highlighting the translational potential of NK immunotherapy as part of a combined modality approach for refractory solid malignancies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erik Ames
- Department of Dermatology, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA 95817
| | - Robert J Canter
- Division of Surgical Oncology, Department of Surgery, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA 95817
| | - Steven K Grossenbacher
- Department of Dermatology, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA 95817
| | - Stephanie Mac
- Department of Dermatology, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA 95817
| | - Mingyi Chen
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA 95817
| | - Rachel C Smith
- Department of Dermatology, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA 95817
| | - Takeshi Hagino
- Department of Dermatology, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA 95817
| | - Jessica Perez-Cunningham
- Department of Dermatology, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA 95817
| | - Gail D Sckisel
- Department of Dermatology, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA 95817
| | - Shiro Urayama
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Internal Medicine, University of California Davis Medical Center, Sacramento, CA 95817
| | - Arta M Monjazeb
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA 95817
| | - Ruben C Fragoso
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA 95817
| | - Thomas J Sayers
- Basic Sciences Program, Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory, Frederick, MD 21702; and
| | - William J Murphy
- Department of Dermatology, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA 95817; Division of Hematology and Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine, University of California Davis Medical Center, Sacramento, CA 95817
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Amer MH, White LJ, Shakesheff KM. The effect of injection using narrow-bore needles on mammalian cells: administration and formulation considerations for cell therapies. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 67:640-50. [PMID: 25623928 PMCID: PMC4964945 DOI: 10.1111/jphp.12362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2014] [Accepted: 11/09/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Objectives This study focuses on the effect of the injection administration process on a range of cell characteristics. Methods Effects of different ejection rates, needle sizes and cell suspension densities were assessed in terms of viability, membrane integrity, apoptosis and senescence of NIH 3T3 fibroblasts. For ratiometric measurements, a multiplex assay was used to verify cell viability, cytotoxicity and apoptosis independent of cell number. Co‐delivery with alginate hydrogels and viscosity‐modifying excipients was also assessed. Key findings Ejections at 150 μl/min resulted in the highest percentage of dose being delivered as viable cells among ejection rates tested. The difference in proportions of apoptotic cells became apparent 48 h after ejection, with proportions being higher in samples ejected at slower rates. Co‐delivery with alginate hydrogels demonstrated a protective action on the cell payload. Conclusions This study demonstrates the importance of careful consideration of administration protocols required for successful delivery of cell suspensions, according to their nature and cellular responses post‐ejection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahetab H Amer
- Wolfson Centre for Stem Cells, Tissue Engineering and Modelling (STEM), School of Pharmacy, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
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Tone Y, Kawahara M, Hayashi J, Nagamune T. Cell fate conversion by conditionally switching the signal-transducing domain of signalobodies. Biotechnol Bioeng 2013; 110:3219-26. [PMID: 23794462 DOI: 10.1002/bit.24985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2013] [Revised: 05/25/2013] [Accepted: 06/14/2013] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Conditionally and strictly controlling cell fates is important for biomedical applications including cell therapies. Although previous studies have been based on regulating the expression or activation of signaling molecules, the techniques therein require improvement in terms of reducing leakiness and complexity. In this study, we propose a novel cell fate converting system using our previously developed antibody/receptor chimeras named "signalobodies" in combination with a Cre/loxP recombination system. We designed a "switch vector" where a growth signalobody gene was flanked by two loxP sites and a death signalobody gene was placed downstream of the floxed cassette. Cells transduced with the switch vector showed superior growth activity in the presence of a specific antigen. Subsequent expression of Cre induced the death signalobody, leading to conditional cell death. This technology could be applicable for other cell fate conversion systems including differentiation and migration, by using appropriate signal-transducing domains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuichiro Tone
- Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8656, Japan
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Peng Z, Yuan Y, Li YJ, Wang HX, Shi J, Cao WX, Luo HW, Deng JR, Feng WL. Targeting BCR tyrosine177 site with novel SH2-DED causes selective leukemia cell death in vitro and in vivo. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2012; 44:861-8. [PMID: 22349215 DOI: 10.1016/j.biocel.2012.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2011] [Revised: 02/04/2012] [Accepted: 02/06/2012] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Emergence of resistance to imatinib mesylate complicates the treatment of chronic myeloid leukemia (CML). Second-generation tyrosine kinase inhibitors are capable to overcome resistance mediated by most mutations except T315I. As this mutation is causative for 20% of clinically observed resistances, the need for novel treatment strategies becomes obvious and urgent. The autophosphorylated BCR/ABL Tyr177 recruits Grb2 via its SH2 domain, which is required for efficient induction of the myeloproliferative disease by BCR/ABL. The death effector domain (DED) is the critical factor for activation of caspase-8 induced apoptosis signal. We thus speculated that transduction of an exogenous SH2-DED (SD) fragment into the CML cells may inhibit the binding of BCR/ABL Tyr177 and Grb2, activate caspase-8 induced apoptosis and serve as a novel CML treatment strategy. The infection of the recombinant adenovirus Ad5/F35-SD was verified to show both cell proliferation-inhibitory and apoptosis-inducing effect. Further exploration into the underlying mechanisms revealed that Ad5/F35-SD exerted its function by binding to the phospho-BCR/ABL Tyr177 site, reducing Ras, MAPK and AKT kinase activities, and activating caspase-8 induced apoptosis signal by DED protein binding to DED domain of precursor caspase-8. Moreover, high anti-proliferative activity of Ad5/F35-SD was observed in nude mice and its leukemia-protective effect was evident in chronic myeloid leukemia model mice injected with BCR/ABL(+) BaF3 cells. In conclusion, Ad5/F35-SD exhibits anti-proliferative and pro-apoptotic activity on BCR/ABL positive leukemia cells in vitro and in vivo through disruption of Grb2 SH2-phospho-BCR/ABL Tyr177 complex formation and induction of caspase-8 activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhi Peng
- Department of Clinical Hematology, Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medical Diagnostics Designated by the Ministry of Education; Chongqing Medical University, 1 Yixueyuan Road, Yuzhong District, Chongqing 400016, PR China
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Das M, Mukhopadhyay S, De RK. Gradient descent optimization in gene regulatory pathways. PLoS One 2010; 5:e12475. [PMID: 20838430 PMCID: PMC2933224 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0012475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2009] [Accepted: 07/26/2010] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Gene Regulatory Networks (GRNs) have become a major focus of interest in recent years. Elucidating the architecture and dynamics of large scale gene regulatory networks is an important goal in systems biology. The knowledge of the gene regulatory networks further gives insights about gene regulatory pathways. This information leads to many potential applications in medicine and molecular biology, examples of which are identification of metabolic pathways, complex genetic diseases, drug discovery and toxicology analysis. High-throughput technologies allow studying various aspects of gene regulatory networks on a genome-wide scale and we will discuss recent advances as well as limitations and future challenges for gene network modeling. Novel approaches are needed to both infer the causal genes and generate hypothesis on the underlying regulatory mechanisms. Methodology In the present article, we introduce a new method for identifying a set of optimal gene regulatory pathways by using structural equations as a tool for modeling gene regulatory networks. The method, first of all, generates data on reaction flows in a pathway. A set of constraints is formulated incorporating weighting coefficients. Finally the gene regulatory pathways are obtained through optimization of an objective function with respect to these weighting coefficients. The effectiveness of the present method is successfully tested on ten gene regulatory networks existing in the literature. A comparative study with the existing extreme pathway analysis also forms a part of this investigation. The results compare favorably with earlier experimental results. The validated pathways point to a combination of previously documented and novel findings. Conclusions We show that our method can correctly identify the causal genes and effectively output experimentally verified pathways. The present method has been successful in deriving the optimal regulatory pathways for all the regulatory networks considered. The biological significance and applicability of the optimal pathways has also been discussed. Finally the usefulness of the present method on genetic engineering is depicted with an example.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mouli Das
- Machine Intelligence Unit, Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata, India
| | - Subhasis Mukhopadhyay
- Department of Bio-Physics, Molecular Biology and Bioinformatics, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, India
| | - Rajat K. De
- Machine Intelligence Unit, Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata, India
- * E-mail:
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Takashina T, Nakayama M. Revival of apoptotic cells that display early-stage dynamic membrane blebbing. FEBS Lett 2007; 581:4479-84. [PMID: 17765227 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2007.08.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2007] [Accepted: 08/15/2007] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The critical point at which apoptosis becomes irreversible and how cells attain an anti-apoptotic state remain unknown. Here, we report that apoptotic cells undergoing early-stage dynamic membrane blebbing revive. We examined this phenomenon in cell lines that stably express 2DED2DD, a modified FADD produced by fusing the tandem death effector domains (DEDs) and tandem death domains (DDs). Induction of apoptosis caused rapid blebbing. Eight hours later, most cells shrunk while some detached from the flask. Twenty-four hours later, when activated caspase 3 decreased, more than half the cells revived and appeared normal, probably due to the induction of unidentified anti-apoptotic proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomoki Takashina
- Laboratory of Pharmacogenomics, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chiba University, 2-6-7, Kazusa-Kamatari, Kisarazu, Chiba 292-0818, Japan
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