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Manouchehri JM, Marcho L, Cherian MA. Sulfatase 2 Inhibition Sensitizes Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Cells to Chemotherapy Through Augmentation of Extracellular ATP. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.09.15.557965. [PMID: 37745565 PMCID: PMC10516004 DOI: 10.1101/2023.09.15.557965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/26/2023]
Abstract
Background Breast cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related death among women worldwide. Patients diagnosed with triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) have limited therapeutic options that produce durable responses. Hence, a diagnosis of TNBC is associated with a poor prognosis compared to other types of breast cancer. As a result, there is a critical need for novel therapies that can deepen and prolong responses.We previously found that chemotherapy causes the release of extracellular adenosine triphosphate (eATP). Augmenting eATP release can boost the response of TNBC cells to chemotherapy and cause increased cell death. However, eATP concentrations are limited by several families of extracellular ATPases, which complicates the design of compounds that attenuate eATP degradation.In this study, we hypothesized that heparan sulfate (HS) would inhibit extracellular ATPases and accentuate chemotherapy-induced cytotoxicity in TNBC by augmenting eATP. HS can be desulfated by sulfatase 1 and 2; sulfatase 2 is consistently highly expressed in a variety of cancers including breast cancer, whereas sulfatase 1 is not. We hypothesized that the sulfatase 2 inhibitor OKN-007 would exacerbate chemotherapy-induced eATP release and TNBC cell death. Methods TNBC cell lines and nontumorigenic immortal mammary epithelial cells were treated with paclitaxel in the presence of heparan sodium sulfate and/or OKN-007; eATP content and cell viability were evaluated. In addition, protein and cell surface expression of sulfatases 1 and 2 were determined in all examined cell lines via ELISA, Western blot, and flow cytometry analyses. Results Sulfatase 2 was highly expressed in TNBC cell lines and human breast cancer samples but not in immortal mammary epithelial cells and much less so in normal human breast tissue and ductal carcinoma in situ samples. OKN-007 exacerbated chemotherapy-induced eATP release and chemotherapy-induced TNBC cell death. When combined with chemotherapy, OKN-007 attenuated cells with a cancer-initiating cell phenotype. Conclusions These results suggest that sulfatase 2 inhibitors in combination with chemotherapy attenuate the viability of TNBC cells more than chemotherapy alone by exacerbating eATP release. These effects, as well as their capacity to attenuate the cancer-initiating cell fraction, may translate into combination therapies for TNBC that induce deeper and more durable responses.
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Marmesin and Marmelosin Interact with the Heparan Sulfatase-2 Active Site: Potential Mechanism for Phytochemicals from Bael Fruit Extract as Antitumor Therapeutics. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2023; 2023:9982194. [PMID: 36644581 PMCID: PMC9836799 DOI: 10.1155/2023/9982194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2022] [Revised: 11/09/2022] [Accepted: 11/10/2022] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Human heparan sulfatase-2 (HSULF-2) is an oncoprotein overexpressed in the surface of all types of tumor cells and its activity plays a critical role in cancer survival and progression. Our previous studies have shown that bael fruit extract, containing marmesin and marmelosin, inhibits the HSULF-2 activity and kills breast tumor cells, but the mechanism of these processes remains fairly known mainly because the HSULF-2's 3D structure is partially known. Herein, we aimed at providing an in silico molecular mechanism of the inhibition of human HSULF-2 by phytochemicals from bael fruit extract. Pharmacokinetic parameters of the main phytochemicals contained in the bael fruit extract, sequence-based 3D structure of human HSULF-2, and the interaction of bael fruit's phytochemicals with the enzyme active site was modeled, evaluated, and verified. Docking studies revealed marmesin and marmelosin as potential inhibitors with binding score -8.5 and -7.7 Kcal/mol; these results were validated using molecular dynamics simulations, which exhibited higher stability of the protein-ligand complexes. Taking together, with our earlier in vitro data, our computational analyses suggest that marmesin and marmelosin interact at the active site of HSULF-2 providing a potential mechanism for its inhibition and consequent antitumor activity by phytochemicals contained in the bael fruit extract.
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Fan B, Zhang Q, Wang N, Wang G. LncRNAs, the Molecules Involved in Communications With Colorectal Cancer Stem Cells. Front Oncol 2022; 12:811374. [PMID: 35155247 PMCID: PMC8829571 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2022.811374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2021] [Accepted: 01/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Colorectal cancer stem cells (CRCSCs) can actively self-renew, as well as having multidirectional differentiation and tumor regeneration abilities. Because the high functional activities of CRCSCs are associated with low cure rates in patients with colorectal cancer, efforts have sought to determine the function and regulatory mechanisms of CRCSCs. To date, however, the potential regulatory mechanisms of CRCSCs remain incompletely understood. Many non-coding genes are involved in tumor invasion and spread through their regulation of CRCSCs, with long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) being important non-coding RNAs. LncRNAs may be involved in the colorectal cancer development and drug resistance through their regulation of CRCSCs. This review systematically evaluates the latest research on the ability of lncRNAs to regulate CRCSC signaling pathways and the involvement of these lncRNAs in colorectal cancer promotion and suppression. The regulatory network of lncRNAs in the CRCSC signaling pathway has been determined. Further analysis of the potential clinical applications of lncRNAs as novel clinical diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers and therapeutic targets for colorectal cancer may provide new ideas and protocols for the prevention and treatment of colorectal cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boyang Fan
- Department of Colorectal Cancer Surgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, China
| | - Qian Zhang
- Department of Colorectal Surgery, Cancer Hospital of the University of Chinese Academy of Sciences (Zhejiang Cancer Hospital), Hangzhou, China
| | - Ning Wang
- Department of Pharmacology (State-Province Key Laboratories of Biomedicine-Pharmaceutics of China, Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Medicine Research, Ministry of Education), College of Pharmacy, Harbin Medical University, Harbin, China
| | - Guiyu Wang
- Department of Colorectal Cancer Surgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, China
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Fattahi F, Kiani J, Alemrajabi M, Soroush A, Naseri M, Najafi M, Madjd Z. Overexpression of DDIT4 and TPTEP1 are associated with metastasis and advanced stages in colorectal cancer patients: a study utilizing bioinformatics prediction and experimental validation. Cancer Cell Int 2021; 21:303. [PMID: 34107956 PMCID: PMC8191213 DOI: 10.1186/s12935-021-02002-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2021] [Accepted: 06/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Various diagnostic and prognostic tools exist in colorectal cancer (CRC) due to multiple genetic and epigenetic alterations causing the disease. Today, the expression of RNAs is being used as prognostic markers for cancer. METHODS In the current study, various dysregulated RNAs in CRC were identified via bioinformatics prediction. Expression of several of these RNAs were measured by RT-qPCR in 48 tissues from CRC patients as well as in colorectal cancer stem cell-enriched spheroids derived from the HT-29 cell line. The relationships between the expression levels of these RNAs and clinicopathological features were analyzed. RESULTS Our bioinformatics analysis determined 11 key mRNAs, 9 hub miRNAs, and 18 lncRNAs which among them 2 coding RNA genes including DDIT4 and SULF1 as well as 3 non-coding RNA genes including TPTEP1, miR-181d-5p, and miR-148b-3p were selected for the further investigations. Expression of DDIT4, TPTEP1, and miR-181d-5p showed significantly increased levels while SULF1 and miR-148b-3p showed decreased levels in CRC tissues compared to the adjacent normal tissues. Positive relationships between DDIT4, SULF1, and TPTEP1 expression and metastasis and advanced stages of CRC were observed. Additionally, our results showed significant correlations between expression of TPTEP1 with DDIT4 and SULF1. CONCLUSIONS Our findings demonstrated increased expression levels of DDIT4 and TPTEP1 in CRC were associated with more aggressive tumor behavior and more advanced stages of the disease. The positive correlations between TPTEP1 as non-coding RNA and both DDIT4 and SULF1 suggest a regulatory effect of TPTEP1 on these genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fahimeh Fattahi
- Oncopathology Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, (IUMS), Tehran, Iran.,Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Jafar Kiani
- Oncopathology Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, (IUMS), Tehran, Iran.,Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mahdi Alemrajabi
- Firoozgar Clinical Research Development Center (FCRDC), Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ahmadreza Soroush
- Obesity and Eating Habits Research Center, Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinical Sciences Institute, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Marzieh Naseri
- Oncopathology Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, (IUMS), Tehran, Iran.,Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad Najafi
- Biochemistry Department, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Zahra Madjd
- Oncopathology Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, (IUMS), Tehran, Iran. .,Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
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Wang H, Chen X, Bao L, Zhang X. Investigating potential molecular mechanisms of serum exosomal miRNAs in colorectal cancer based on bioinformatics analysis. Medicine (Baltimore) 2020; 99:e22199. [PMID: 32925795 PMCID: PMC7489663 DOI: 10.1097/md.0000000000022199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2020] [Revised: 07/11/2020] [Accepted: 08/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the most common malignant gastrointestinal tumor worldwide. Serum exosomal microRNAs (miRNAs) play a critical role in tumor progression and metastasis. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms are poorly understood.The miRNAs expression profile (GSE39833) was downloaded from Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database. GEO2R was applied to screen the differentially expressed miRNAs (DEmiRNAs) between healthy and CRC serum exosome samples. The target genes of DEmiRNAs were predicted by starBase v3.0 online tool. The gene ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genomes pathway (KEGG) enrichment analysis were performed using the Database for Annotation, Visualization and Integrated Discovery (DAVID) online tool. The protein-protein interaction (PPI) network was established by the Search Tool for the Retrieval of Interacting Genes (STRING) visualized using Cytoscape software. Molecular Complex Detection (MCODE) and cytohubba plug-in were used to screen hub genes and gene modules.In total, 102 DEmiRNAs were identified including 67 upregulated and 35 downregulated DEmiRNAs, and 1437 target genes were predicted. GO analysis showed target genes of upregulated DEmiRNAs were significantly enriched in transcription regulation, protein binding, and ubiquitin protein ligase activity. While the target genes of downregulated DEmiRNAs were mainly involved in transcription from RNA polymerase II promoter, SMAD binding, and DNA binding. The KEGG pathway enrichment analyses showed target genes of upregulated DEmiRNAs were significantly enriched in proteoglycans in cancer, microRNAs in cancer, and phosphatidylinositol-3 kinases/Akt (PI3K-Akt) signaling pathway, while target genes of downregulated DEmiRNAs were mainly enriched in transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) signaling pathway and proteoglycans in cancer. The genes of the top 3 modules were mainly enriched in ubiquitin mediated proteolysis, spliceosome, and mRNA surveillance pathway. According to the cytohubba plugin, 37 hub genes were selected, and 4 hub genes including phosphoinositide-3-kinase regulatory subunit 1 (PIK3R1), SRC, cell division cycle 42 (CDC42), E1A binding protein p300 (EP300) were identified by combining 8 ranked methods of cytohubba.The study provides a comprehensive analysis of exosomal DEmiRNAs and target genes regulatory network in CRC, which can better understand the roles of exosomal miRNAs in the development of CRC. However, these findings require further experimental validation in future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haifeng Wang
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Beilun District People's Hospital, Ningbo, Zhejiang
| | - Xiliang Chen
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Zhangqiu District People's Hospital, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Lingling Bao
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Beilun District People's Hospital, Ningbo, Zhejiang
| | - Xuede Zhang
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Beilun District People's Hospital, Ningbo, Zhejiang
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Ahrens TD, Bang-Christensen SR, Jørgensen AM, Løppke C, Spliid CB, Sand NT, Clausen TM, Salanti A, Agerbæk MØ. The Role of Proteoglycans in Cancer Metastasis and Circulating Tumor Cell Analysis. Front Cell Dev Biol 2020; 8:749. [PMID: 32984308 PMCID: PMC7479181 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2020.00749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2020] [Accepted: 07/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Circulating tumor cells (CTCs) are accessible by liquid biopsies via an easy blood draw. They represent not only the primary tumor site, but also potential metastatic lesions, and could thus be an attractive supplement for cancer diagnostics. However, the analysis of rare CTCs in billions of normal blood cells is still technically challenging and novel specific CTC markers are needed. The formation of metastasis is a complex process supported by numerous molecular alterations, and thus novel CTC markers might be found by focusing on this process. One example of this is specific changes in the cancer cell glycocalyx, which is a network on the cell surface composed of carbohydrate structures. Proteoglycans are important glycocalyx components and consist of a protein core and covalently attached long glycosaminoglycan chains. A few CTC assays have already utilized proteoglycans for both enrichment and analysis of CTCs. Nonetheless, the biological function of proteoglycans on clinical CTCs has not been studied in detail so far. Therefore, the present review describes proteoglycan functions during the metastatic cascade to highlight their importance to CTCs. We also outline current approaches for CTC assays based on targeting proteoglycans by their protein cores or their glycosaminoglycan chains. Lastly, we briefly discuss important technical aspects, which should be considered for studying proteoglycans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theresa D. Ahrens
- Centre for Medical Parasitology at Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen and Department of Infectious Diseases, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Sara R. Bang-Christensen
- Centre for Medical Parasitology at Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen and Department of Infectious Diseases, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
- VarCT Diagnostics, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | | | - Caroline Løppke
- Centre for Medical Parasitology at Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen and Department of Infectious Diseases, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Charlotte B. Spliid
- Centre for Medical Parasitology at Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen and Department of Infectious Diseases, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Nicolai T. Sand
- Centre for Medical Parasitology at Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen and Department of Infectious Diseases, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Thomas M. Clausen
- Centre for Medical Parasitology at Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen and Department of Infectious Diseases, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Ali Salanti
- Centre for Medical Parasitology at Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen and Department of Infectious Diseases, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Mette Ø. Agerbæk
- Centre for Medical Parasitology at Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen and Department of Infectious Diseases, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
- VarCT Diagnostics, Copenhagen, Denmark
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Lombardi APG, Vicente CM, Porto CS. Estrogen Receptors Promote Migration, Invasion and Colony Formation of the Androgen-Independent Prostate Cancer Cells PC-3 Through β-Catenin Pathway. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2020; 11:184. [PMID: 32328032 PMCID: PMC7160699 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2020.00184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2020] [Accepted: 03/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Prostate cancer is initially dependent on the androgen, gradually evolves into an androgen-independent form of the disease, also known as castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). At this stage, current therapies scantily improve survival of the patient. Androgens and estrogens are involved in normal prostate and prostate cancer development. The mechanisms by which estrogens/estrogen receptors (ERs) induce prostate cancer and promote prostate cancer progression have not yet been fully identified. Our laboratory has shown that androgen-independent prostate cancer cells PC-3 express both ERα and ERβ. The activation of ERβ increases the expression of β-catenin and proliferation of PC-3 cells. We now report that the activation of ERβ promotes the increase of migration, invasion and anchorage-independent growth of PC-3 cells. Furthermore, the activation of ERα also plays a role in invasion and anchorage-independent growth of PC-3 cells. These effects are blocked by pretreatment with PKF 118-310, compound that disrupts the complex β-catenin/TCF/LEF, suggesting that ERs/β-catenin are involved in all cellular characteristics of tumor development in vitro. Furthermore, PKF 118-310 also inhibited the upregulation of vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGFA) induced by activation of ERs. VEGF also is involved on invasion of PC-3 cells. In conclusion, this study provides novel insights into the signatures and molecular mechanisms of ERβ in androgen-independent prostate cancer cells PC-3. ERα also plays a role on invasion and colony formation of PC-3 cells.
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Kovacs Z, Jung I, Szalman K, Banias L, Bara TJ, Gurzu S. Interaction of arylsulfatases A and B with maspin: A possible explanation for dysregulation of tumor cell metabolism and invasive potential of colorectal cancer. World J Clin Cases 2019; 7:3990-4003. [PMID: 31832401 PMCID: PMC6906558 DOI: 10.12998/wjcc.v7.i23.3990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2019] [Revised: 10/31/2019] [Accepted: 11/15/2019] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although it has been shown that arylsulfatases are lost in colorectal cancer (CRC) cell lines, their exact role in the carcinogenesis and behavior of this cancer was not elucidated. No data about the correlation between serum and immunohistochemical (IHC) level of arylsulfatases (ARSA, ARSB) in patients with CRC were published yet. AIM To evaluate the possible prognostic value of ARSA and/or ARSB in CRC, at circulating and protein levels. METHODS The present study included 45 consecutive patients who were prospectively diagnosed with CRC. For IHC stains (protein expression) ARSA, ARSB and maspin expression were quantified. For these markers, cytoplasmic expression was taken into account. For gene expression study, circulating mRNA was isolated from all patients, before surgery. A group of 45 healthy patients without inflammatory or tumor pathologies was used as control group. Reverse transcription and Taqman Gene Expression Array were used for ARSB gene expression. RESULTS The preoperative circulating RNA level of the ARSB gene was significantly decreased in patients with CRC (RQ < 1), compared with the control group (RQ > 1). A more significant decrease (RQ < 0.5) occurred in ulcero-infiltrative maspin-positive adenocarcinomas, with a higher degree of tumor budding, diagnosed in locally advanced stages (pT3/4). ARSA/maspin immunopositivity indicated a higher risk for lymph node metastasis, while triple positivity for maspin/ARSA/ARSB and ARSB gene expression level < 0.5 were indicators of CRC aggressive behavior, independent of lymph node status. CONCLUSION The significant independent negative prognostic factors of CRC are the ulcero-infiltrative aspect, high budding degree, triple positivity for maspin, ARSA and ARSB, and low ARSB gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zsolt Kovacs
- Department of Pathology, University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Sciences and Technology “George Emil Palade”, Targu Mures 530149, Romania
| | - Ioan Jung
- Department of Pathology, University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Sciences and Technology “George Emil Palade”, Targu Mures 530149, Romania
| | - Krisztina Szalman
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Sciences and Technology “George Emil Palade”, Targu Mures 530149, Romania
| | - Laura Banias
- Department of Pathology, University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Sciences and Technology “George Emil Palade”, Targu Mures 530149, Romania
| | - Tivadar Jr Bara
- Department of Surgery, University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Science and Technology “George Emil Palade”, Tirgu Mures 530149, Romania
| | - Simona Gurzu
- Department of Pathology, University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Sciences and Technology “George Emil Palade”, Targu Mures 530149, Romania
- Research Center (CCAMF), University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Sciences and Technology, Targu Mures 540139, Romania
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Bioinformatics Analysis Reveals Most Prominent Gene Candidates to Distinguish Colorectal Adenoma from Adenocarcinoma. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2018; 2018:9416515. [PMID: 30175151 PMCID: PMC6106857 DOI: 10.1155/2018/9416515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2018] [Accepted: 07/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the leading causes of death by cancer worldwide. Bowel cancer screening programs enable us to detect early lesions and improve the prognosis of patients with CRC. However, they also generate a significant number of problematic polyps, e.g., adenomas with epithelial misplacement (pseudoinvasion) which can mimic early adenocarcinoma. Therefore, biomarkers that would enable us to distinguish between adenoma with epithelial misplacement (pseudoinvasion) and adenoma with early adenocarcinomas (true invasion) are needed. We hypothesized that the former are genetically similar to adenoma and the latter to adenocarcinoma and we used bioinformatics approach to search for candidate genes that might be potentially used to distinguish between the two lesions. We used publicly available data from Gene Expression Omnibus database and we analyzed gene expression profiles of 252 samples of normal mucosa, colorectal adenoma, and carcinoma. In total, we analyzed 122 colorectal adenomas, 59 colorectal carcinomas, and 62 normal mucosa samples. We have identified 16 genes with differential expression in carcinoma compared to adenoma: COL12A1, COL1A2, COL3A1, DCN, PLAU, SPARC, SPON2, SPP1, SULF1, FADS1, G0S2, EPHA4, KIAA1324, L1TD1, PCKS1, and C11orf96. In conclusion, our in silico analysis revealed 16 candidate genes with different expression patterns in adenoma compared to carcinoma, which might be used to discriminate between these two lesions.
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10
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Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in Human Colorectal Cancer. Anal Cell Pathol (Amst) 2018; 2018:8389595. [PMID: 30027065 PMCID: PMC6031075 DOI: 10.1155/2018/8389595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2018] [Revised: 05/14/2018] [Accepted: 05/20/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Colorectal cancer is the third most common cancer worldwide, accounting for more than 610,000 mortalities every year. Prognosis of patients is highly dependent on the disease stage at diagnosis. Therefore, it is crucial to investigate molecules involved in colorectal cancer tumorigenesis, with possible use as tumor markers. Heparan sulfate proteoglycans are complex molecules present in the cell membrane and extracellular matrix, which play vital roles in cell adhesion, migration, proliferation, and signaling pathways. In colorectal cancer, the cell surface proteoglycan syndecan-2 is upregulated and increases cell migration. Moreover, expression of syndecan-1 and syndecan-4, generally antitumor molecules, is reduced. Levels of glypicans and perlecan are also altered in colorectal cancer; however, their role in tumor progression is not fully understood. In addition, studies have reported increased heparan sulfate remodeling enzymes, as the endosulfatases. Therefore, heparan sulfate proteoglycans are candidate molecules to clarify colorectal cancer tumorigenesis, as well as important targets to therapy and diagnosis.
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Tran VM, Wade A, McKinney A, Chen K, Lindberg OR, Engler JR, Persson AI, Phillips JJ. Heparan Sulfate Glycosaminoglycans in Glioblastoma Promote Tumor Invasion. Mol Cancer Res 2017; 15:1623-1633. [PMID: 28778876 DOI: 10.1158/1541-7786.mcr-17-0352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2017] [Revised: 07/28/2017] [Accepted: 08/01/2017] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common primary malignant brain tumor of adults and confers a poor prognosis due, in part, to diffuse invasion of tumor cells. Heparan sulfate (HS) glycosaminoglycans, present on the cell surface and in the extracellular matrix, regulate cell signaling pathways and cell-microenvironment interactions. In GBM, the expression of HS glycosaminoglycans and the enzymes that regulate their function are altered, but the actual HS content and structure are unknown. However, inhibition of HS glycosaminoglycan function is emerging as a promising therapeutic strategy for some cancers. In this study, we use liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis to demonstrate differences in HS disaccharide content and structure across four patient-derived tumorsphere lines (GBM1, 5, 6, 43) and between two murine tumorsphere lines derived from murine GBM with enrichment of mesenchymal and proneural gene expression (mMES and mPN, respectively) markers. In GBM, the heterogeneous HS content and structure across patient-derived tumorsphere lines suggested diverse functions in the GBM tumor microenvironment. In GBM5 and mPN, elevated expression of sulfatase 2 (SULF2), an extracellular enzyme that alters ligand binding to HS, was associated with low trisulfated HS disaccharides, a substrate of SULF2. In contrast, other primary tumorsphere lines had elevated expression of the HS-modifying enzyme heparanase (HPSE). Using gene editing strategies to inhibit HPSE, a role for HPSE in promoting tumor cell adhesion and invasion was identified. These studies characterize the heterogeneity in HS glycosaminoglycan content and structure across GBM and reveal their role in tumor cell invasion.Implications: HS-interacting factors promote GBM invasion and are potential therapeutic targets. Mol Cancer Res; 15(11); 1623-33. ©2017 AACR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vy M Tran
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Brain Tumor Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California
| | - Anna Wade
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Brain Tumor Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California
| | - Andrew McKinney
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Brain Tumor Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California
| | - Katharine Chen
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Brain Tumor Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California
| | - Olle R Lindberg
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Brain Tumor Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California
| | - Jane R Engler
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Brain Tumor Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California
| | - Anders I Persson
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Brain Tumor Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California.,Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California.,Sandler Neurosciences Center, Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California
| | - Joanna J Phillips
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Brain Tumor Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California. .,Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California.,Division of Neuropathology, Department of Pathology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California
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12
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Lima M, Rudd T, Yates E. New Applications of Heparin and Other Glycosaminoglycans. Molecules 2017; 22:molecules22050749. [PMID: 28481236 PMCID: PMC6154012 DOI: 10.3390/molecules22050749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2017] [Revised: 04/24/2017] [Accepted: 04/28/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Heparin, the widely used pharmaceutical anticoagulant, has been in clinical use for well over half a century. Its introduction reduced clotting risks substantially and subsequent developments, including the introduction of low-molecular-weight heparin, made possible many major surgical interventions that today make heparin an indispensable drug. There has been a recent burgeoning of interest in heparin and related glycosaminoglycan (GAG) polysaccharides, such as chondroitin sulfates, heparan sulfate, and hyaluronate, as potential agents in various applications. This ability arises mainly from the ability of GAGs to interact with, and alter the activity of, a wide range of proteins. Here, we review new developments (since 2010) in the application of heparin and related GAGs across diverse fields ranging from thrombosis and neurodegenerative disorders to microbiology and biotechnology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcelo Lima
- Department of Biochemistry, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), Vila Clementino, São Paulo, S.P. 04044-020, Brazil.
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Crown Street, Liverpool L69 7ZB, UK.
| | - Timothy Rudd
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Crown Street, Liverpool L69 7ZB, UK.
- National Institute of Biological Standards and Controls (NIBSC), Blanche Lane, Potters Bar, Herts EN6 3QG, UK.
| | - Edwin Yates
- Department of Biochemistry, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), Vila Clementino, São Paulo, S.P. 04044-020, Brazil.
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Crown Street, Liverpool L69 7ZB, UK.
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13
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Sulfatase-2 promotes the growth and metastasis of colorectal cancer by activating Akt and Erk1/2 pathways. Biomed Pharmacother 2017; 89:1370-1377. [PMID: 28320104 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2017.03.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2017] [Revised: 02/28/2017] [Accepted: 03/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The molecular mechanisms underlying the growth and metastasis of colorectal cancer (CRC) remain largely unknown. Sulfatase-2 (SULF2) was found to play critical roles in human cancers. Recent study reported that SULF1/2 overexpression resulted in increased viability and proliferation, and augmented cell migration in CRC cells. However, the expression of SULF2 and its underlying molecular mechanisms in CRC remain unknown. In this study, we found that the expressions of SULF2 in CRC tissues and cell lines were significantly increased compared to control groups. Increased expression of SULF2 was associated with malignant clinical features and poor prognosis of CRC patients. Loss of SULF2 significantly prohibited the proliferation, cell cycle progression, migration and invasion of HT29 cells, while restoration of SULF2 significantly promoted these cellular functions of SW480 cells. In vivo tumorigenicity and liver metastasis assays confirmed that SULF2 knockdown significantly reduced the growth and metastatic abilities of HT29 cells in nude mice. Furthermore, SULF2 knockdown reduced the levels of p-Akt and p-Erk1/2 in HT29 cells, while SULF2 overexpression showed opposite effects on the expressions of these proteins in SW480 cells. In all, SULF2 promotes the growth and metastasis of CRC probably by activating Akt and Erk1/2 pathways. SULF2 potentially serves as a promising biomarker and therapeutic target in CRC.
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14
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Bradai M, Han J, Omri AE, Funamizu N, Sayadi S, Isoda H. Effect of linear alkylbenzene sulfonate (LAS) on human intestinal Caco-2 cells at non cytotoxic concentrations. Cytotechnology 2016; 68:1267-75. [PMID: 25999174 PMCID: PMC4960175 DOI: 10.1007/s10616-015-9887-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2014] [Accepted: 05/08/2015] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Linear alkylbenzene sulfonate (LAS) is a cytotoxic synthetic anionic surfactant widely present in the environment due to its large-scale production and intensive use in the detergency field. In this study, we investigated the effect of LAS (CAS No. 25155-30-0) at non cytotoxic concentrations on human intestinal Caco-2 cells using different in vitro bioassays. As results, LAS increased Caco-2 cell proliferation at concentrations ranging from 1 to 15 ppm, more significantly for shorter exposure time (24 h), confirmed using flow cytometry and trypan blue exclusion methods. Moreover, proteomics analysis revealed that this effect was associated with an over-expression of elongation factor 2 and dipeptidyl peptidase 3, and a down-regulation of 14-3-3 protein theta, confirmed at mRNA level using real-time PCR. These findings suggest that LAS at non cytotoxic concentrations, similar to those observed at wastewater treatment plants outlets, increases the growth rate of colon cancer cells, raising thereby its tumor promotion effect potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed Bradai
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tennodai 1-1-1, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8572, Japan
| | - Junkyu Han
- Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tennodai 1-1-1, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8572, Japan
- Alliance of Research on North Africa, University of Tsukuba, Tennodai 1-1-1, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8572, Japan
| | - Abdelfatteh El Omri
- Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tennodai 1-1-1, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8572, Japan
| | - Naoyuki Funamizu
- Graduate School of Engineering, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, 060-0808, Japan
| | - Sami Sayadi
- Laboratory of Environmental Bioprocesses, Biotechnology Center of Sfax, Sfax, PB 3018, Tunisia
| | - Hiroko Isoda
- Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tennodai 1-1-1, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8572, Japan.
- Alliance of Research on North Africa, University of Tsukuba, Tennodai 1-1-1, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8572, Japan.
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15
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Reuillon T, Alhasan SF, Beale GS, Bertoli A, Brennan A, Cano C, Reeves HL, Newell DR, Golding BT, Miller DC, Griffin RJ. Design and synthesis of biphenyl and biphenyl ether inhibitors of sulfatases. Chem Sci 2016; 7:2821-2826. [PMID: 28660059 PMCID: PMC5477036 DOI: 10.1039/c5sc03612g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2015] [Accepted: 01/10/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Inhibitors of sulfatase-2 are putative anticancer agents, but the discovery of potent small molecules targeting this enzyme has proved challenging. Based on molecular modelling, two series of sulfatase-2 inhibitors have been developed with biphenyl and biphenyl ether scaffolds judiciously substituted with sulfamate, carboxylate and other polar groups (e.g. amino). Inhibition of aryl sulfatase A and B was also determined. The biphenyl ether derivatives were less selective for sulfatase-2 over aryl sulfatase B than the biphenyl series. All biphenyl ether derivatives inhibited aryl sulfatase A, whereas only amino derivatives inhibited aryl sulfatase B significantly. In the biphenyl series few derivatives exhibited activity against aryl sulfatase B. The trichloroethylsulfamate group was identified as a new pharmacophore enabling potent inhibition of all of the sulfatases studied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tristan Reuillon
- Newcastle Cancer Centre , Northern Institute for Cancer Research , School of Chemistry , Newcastle University , Bedson Building , Newcastle Upon Tyne , NE1 7RU , UK . ; ; ; Tel: +44 (0)191 2226647
| | - Sari F Alhasan
- Newcastle Cancer Centre , Northern Institute for Cancer Research , School of Chemistry , Newcastle University , Bedson Building , Newcastle Upon Tyne , NE1 7RU , UK . ; ; ; Tel: +44 (0)191 2226647
| | - Gary S Beale
- Newcastle Cancer Centre , Northern Institute for Cancer Research , School of Chemistry , Newcastle University , Bedson Building , Newcastle Upon Tyne , NE1 7RU , UK . ; ; ; Tel: +44 (0)191 2226647
| | - Annalisa Bertoli
- Newcastle Cancer Centre , Northern Institute for Cancer Research , School of Chemistry , Newcastle University , Bedson Building , Newcastle Upon Tyne , NE1 7RU , UK . ; ; ; Tel: +44 (0)191 2226647
| | - Alfie Brennan
- Newcastle Cancer Centre , Northern Institute for Cancer Research , School of Chemistry , Newcastle University , Bedson Building , Newcastle Upon Tyne , NE1 7RU , UK . ; ; ; Tel: +44 (0)191 2226647
| | - Celine Cano
- Newcastle Cancer Centre , Northern Institute for Cancer Research , School of Chemistry , Newcastle University , Bedson Building , Newcastle Upon Tyne , NE1 7RU , UK . ; ; ; Tel: +44 (0)191 2226647
| | - Helen L Reeves
- Newcastle Cancer Centre , Northern Institute for Cancer Research , School of Chemistry , Newcastle University , Bedson Building , Newcastle Upon Tyne , NE1 7RU , UK . ; ; ; Tel: +44 (0)191 2226647
| | - David R Newell
- Newcastle Cancer Centre , Northern Institute for Cancer Research , School of Chemistry , Newcastle University , Bedson Building , Newcastle Upon Tyne , NE1 7RU , UK . ; ; ; Tel: +44 (0)191 2226647
| | - Bernard T Golding
- Newcastle Cancer Centre , Northern Institute for Cancer Research , School of Chemistry , Newcastle University , Bedson Building , Newcastle Upon Tyne , NE1 7RU , UK . ; ; ; Tel: +44 (0)191 2226647
| | - Duncan C Miller
- Newcastle Cancer Centre , Northern Institute for Cancer Research , School of Chemistry , Newcastle University , Bedson Building , Newcastle Upon Tyne , NE1 7RU , UK . ; ; ; Tel: +44 (0)191 2226647
| | - Roger J Griffin
- Newcastle Cancer Centre , Northern Institute for Cancer Research , School of Chemistry , Newcastle University , Bedson Building , Newcastle Upon Tyne , NE1 7RU , UK . ; ; ; Tel: +44 (0)191 2226647
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16
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Lui NS, Yang YW, van Zante A, Buchanan P, Jablons DM, Lemjabbar-Alaoui H. SULF2 Expression Is a Potential Diagnostic and Prognostic Marker in Lung Cancer. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0148911. [PMID: 26882224 PMCID: PMC4755530 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0148911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2015] [Accepted: 01/20/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
AIMS Lung cancer is one of the most deadly cancers; median survival from diagnosis is less than one year in those with advanced disease. Novel lung cancer biomarkers are desperately needed. In this study, we evaluated SULF2 expression by immunohistochemistry and its association with overall survival in a cohort of patients with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). We also looked for the presence of SULF2 protein in plasma to evaluate its potential as an early detection biomarker for NSCLC. METHODS We identified patients who underwent surgical resection for pulmonary adenocarcinoma or squamous cell carcinoma at our institution. A section from each paraffin-embedded specimen was stained with a SULF2 antibody. A pathologist determined the percentage and intensity of tumor cell staining. Survival analysis was performed using a multivariate Cox proportional hazards model. Using a novel SULF2 ELISA assay, we analyzed plasma levels of SULF2 in a small cohort of healthy donors and patients with early stage NSCLC. RESULTS SULF2 staining was present in 82% of the lung cancer samples. Squamous cell carcinomas had a higher mean percentage of staining than adenocarcinomas (100% vs. 60%; p<0.0005). After adjusting for age, sex, race, histologic type, stage, and neoadjuvant therapy, there was a non-significant (31%; p = 0.65) increase in the risk of death for patients with adenocarcinoma with SULF2 staining in tumor cells. In contrast, there was a significant decrease in the risk of death (89%; p = 0.02) for patients with squamous cell carcinoma with SULF2 staining in tumor cells. SULF2 protein was present in plasma of patients with early stage NSCLC, and soluble SULF2 levels increased with age. Finally, plasma SULF2 levels were significantly elevated in early stage NSCLC patients, compared to healthy controls. CONCLUSIONS Tumor expression of SULF2 may affect prognosis in NSCLC, while blood SULF2 levels may have a significant role in the diagnosis of this fatal disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalie S. Lui
- Thoracic Oncology Program, Department of Surgery, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Yi-Wei Yang
- Thoracic Oncology Program, Department of Surgery, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Annemieke van Zante
- Department of Pathology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Petra Buchanan
- Thoracic Oncology Program, Department of Surgery, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - David M. Jablons
- Thoracic Oncology Program, Department of Surgery, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Hassan Lemjabbar-Alaoui
- Thoracic Oncology Program, Department of Surgery, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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17
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Vicente CM, Lima MA, Nader HB, Toma L. SULF2 overexpression positively regulates tumorigenicity of human prostate cancer cells. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL & CLINICAL CANCER RESEARCH : CR 2015; 34:25. [PMID: 25887999 PMCID: PMC4374423 DOI: 10.1186/s13046-015-0141-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2014] [Accepted: 02/26/2015] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Background SULF2 is a 6-O-endosulfatase which removes 6-O sulfate residues from N-glucosamine present on heparan sulfate (HS). The sulfation pattern of HS influences signaling events mediated by heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) located on cell surface, which are critical for the interactions with growth factors and their receptors. Alterations in SULF2 expression have been identified in the context of several cancer types but its function in cancer is still unclear where the precise molecular mechanism involved has not been fully deciphered. To further investigate SULF2 role in tumorigenesis, we overexpressed such gene in prostate cancer cell lines. Methods The normal prostate epithelial cell line RWPE-1 and the prostate cancer cells DU-145, and PC3 were transfected with SULF2-expressing plasmid pcDNA3.1/Myc-His(−)-Hsulf-2. Transfected cells were then submitted to viability, migration and colony formation assays. Results Transfection of DU-145 and PC3 prostate cancer cells with SULF2 resulted in increased viability, which did not occur with normal prostate cells. The effect was reverted by the knockdown of SULF2 using specific siRNAs. Furthermore, forced expression of SULF2 augmented cell migration and colony formation in both prostate cell lines. Detailed structural analysis of HS from cells overexpressing SULF2 showed a reduction of the trisulfated disaccharide UA(2S)-GlcNS(6S). There was an increase in epithelial-mesenchymal transition markers and an increase in WNT signaling pathway. Conclusions These results indicate that SULF2 have a pro-tumorigenic effect in DU-145 and PC3 cancer cells, suggesting an important role of this enzyme in prostatic cancer metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina M Vicente
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Disciplina de Biologia Molecular, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, UNIFESP, Rua Três de Maio, 100 - 4° andar, Vila Clementino, CEP 04044-020, São Paulo, SP, Brazil.
| | - Marcelo A Lima
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Disciplina de Biologia Molecular, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, UNIFESP, Rua Três de Maio, 100 - 4° andar, Vila Clementino, CEP 04044-020, São Paulo, SP, Brazil. .,Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK.
| | - Helena B Nader
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Disciplina de Biologia Molecular, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, UNIFESP, Rua Três de Maio, 100 - 4° andar, Vila Clementino, CEP 04044-020, São Paulo, SP, Brazil.
| | - Leny Toma
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Disciplina de Biologia Molecular, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, UNIFESP, Rua Três de Maio, 100 - 4° andar, Vila Clementino, CEP 04044-020, São Paulo, SP, Brazil.
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