Pre-attentive cognitive processing in epilepsy. A pilot study on the impact of epilepsy type and anti-epileptic treatment

Absence epilepsy: Characteristics, pathophysiology, attention impairments, and the related risk of accidents. A narrative review

OBJECTIVE

Absence epilepsy (AE) is related to both cognitive and physical impairments. In this narrative review, we critically discuss the pathophysiology of AE and the impairment of attention in children and adolescents with AE. In particular, we contextualize the attentive dysfunctions of AE with the associated risks, such as accidental injuries.

DATA SOURCE

An extensive literature search on attention deficits and the rate of accidental injuries in AE was run. The search was conducted on Scopus, Pubmed, and the online libraries of the University of Twente and Maastricht University. Relevant references of the included articles were added. Retrospective and prospective studies, case reports, meta-analysis, and narrative reviews were included. Only studies written in English were considered. Date of last search is February 2020. The keywords used were "absence epilepsy" AND "attention"/"awareness", "absence epilepsy" AND "accidental injuries"/"accident*"/"injuries".

RESULTS

Ten retrospective and two prospective studies on cognition and AE were fully screened. Seventeen papers explicitly referring to attention in AE were reviewed. Just one paper was found to specifically focus on accidental injuries and AE, while twelve studies generally referring to epilepsy syndromes - among which AE - and related accidents were included.

CONCLUSION

Absence epilepsy and attention deficits show some patterns of pathophysiological association. This relation may account for dysfunctions in everyday activities in the pediatric population. Particular metrics, such as the risk related to biking in children with AE, should be used in future studies to address the problem in a novel way and to impact clinical indications.

Concentration Endurance Test (d2): Normative data for Spanish-speaking pediatric population

OBJECTIVE

To generate normative data for the Concentration Endurance Test (d2) in Spanish-speaking pediatric populations.

METHOD

The sample consisted of 4,373 healthy children from nine countries in Latin America (Chile, Cuba, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and Puerto Rico) and Spain. Each participant was administered the d2 test as part of a larger neuropsychological battery. The Total number of items processed (TN), Total number of correct responses (CR), Total performance (TP), and Concentration performance (CP) scores were normed using multiple linear regressions and standard deviations of residual values. Age, age2, sex, and mean level of parental education (MLPE) were included as predictors in the analyses.

RESULTS

The final multiple linear regression models showed main effects for age on all scores, such that scores increased linearly as a function of age. TN scores were affected by age2 for Guatemala and Puerto Rico; CR scores were affected by age2 for Mexico; TP scores were affected by age2 for Chile, Mexico, Puerto Rico, and Spain; and CP scores for Mexico and Spain. Models indicated that children whose parents had a MLPE >12 years obtained higher scores compared to children whose parents had a MLPE≤12 years for Mexico and Spain in all scores, and Puerto Rico for TN, CR, and TP, and Guatemala and Paraguay for CP scores. Sex affect the scores for Ecuador and Honduras (CP scores).

CONCLUSIONS

This is the largest Spanish-speaking pediatric normative study in the world, and it will allow neuropsychologists from these countries to have a more accurate approach to interpret the d2 test in pediatric populations.

The Art of Managing Conversions between Antiepileptic Drugs: Maximizing Patient Tolerability and Quality of Life

Conversion between anti-epilectic drugs (AEDs) is frequently necessary in epilepsy care, exposing patients to a risk of incurring adverse effects and reduced quality of life. Little practical guidance is available to practitioners to guide conversions between AED monotherapies, or in adding a new adjunctive AED into a polytherapy regimen. This article reviews the impact of adverse effects of AEDs on quality of life in epilepsy patients, then reviews several important patient-related factors such as age, gender, medical and psychiatric co-morbidities, and co-medications that must be considered when selecting AEDs and ensuring tolerable and safe AED conversions. Practical strategies for transitional polytherapy AED conversion are then considered in different commonly encountered clinical scenarios in newly diagnosed and refractory epilepsy care, including inadequate seizure control, intolerable adverse effects, or idiosyncratic safety hazards. Successful conversion between AEDs requires regular monitoring for patient-reported adverse effects and appropriately reactive adjustment of AED therapy to maximize patient quality of life.

Truly "rational" polytherapy: maximizing efficacy and minimizing drug interactions, drug load, and adverse effects

While several newer AEDs have study data that support monotherapy usage, most possess FDA indications for adjunctive treatment of partial onset seizures, leading to their initial (and often persistent) clinical use as adjunctive polytherapy for patients with refractory epilepsy. This review considers a practical approach to the appropriate role for polytherapy in epilepsy, presents the evidence for AED polytherapy, reviews the mythic but practically reasonable concept of "rational polytherapy," and concludes with practical strategies for avoiding and employing polytherapy in clinical practice. The appropriate indications for AED polytherapy include transitional polytherapy during titration of a new adjunctive AED toward monotherapy or long-term maintenance AED polytherapy in medically refractory epilepsy.

Minimizing AED adverse effects: improving quality of life in the interictal state in epilepsy care

The goals of epilepsy therapy are to achieve seizure freedom while minimizing adverse effects of treatment. However, producing seizure-freedom is often overemphasized, at the expense of inducing adverse effects of treatment. All antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) have the potential to cause dose-related, "neurotoxic" adverse effects (i.e., drowsiness, fatigue, dizziness, blurry vision, and incoordination). Such adverse effects are common, especially when initiating AED therapy and with polytherapy. Dose-related adverse effects may be obviated in most patients by dose reduction of monotherapy, reduction or elimination of polytherapy, or substituting for a better tolerated AED. Additionally, all older and several newer AEDs have idiosyncratic adverse effects which usually require withdrawal in an affected patient, including serious rash (i.e., Stevens-Johnson Syndrome, toxic epidermal necrolysis), hematologic dyscrasias, hepatotoxicity, teratogenesis in women of child bearing potential, bone density loss, neuropathy, and severe gingival hyperplasia. Unfortunately, occurrence of idiosyncratic AED adverse effects cannot be predicted or, in most cases, prevented in susceptible patients. This article reviews a practical approach for the definition and identification of adverse effects of epilepsy therapies, and reviews the literature demonstrating that adverse effects result in detrimental quality of life in epilepsy patients. Strategies for minimizing AED adverse effects by reduction or elimination of AED polytherapy, appropriately employing drug-sparing therapies, and optimally administering AEDs are outlined, including tenets of AED selection, titration, therapeutic AED laboratory monitoring, and avoidance of chronic idiosyncratic adverse effects.