Transcription factor AP-2beta genotype associated with anxiety-related personality traits in women. A replication study

Family-based genetic analysis in schizophrenia by whole-exome sequence to identify rare pathogenic variants

Schizophrenia (SCZ) is influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Although several studies have been conducted to identify the causative loci and genes, few of these loci or genes can be repeated due to the high phenotypic and genetic heterogeneity of disease, and their mechanisms are not fully understood. There may be some "missing heritability" that has not yet been found. In order to investigate the deleterious heritable mutations, whole-exome sequencing (WES) in pedigrees with SCZ was used in the current work. Two unrelated pedigrees with SCZ were recruited to perform WES. Genetic analysis was next performed to find potential variants in accordance with the prioritized strategy. Followed by genetic analysis to detect candidate variants according to the prioritized strategy. Next, a series of algorithms was used to predict the pathogenicity of variants. Sanger sequencing was finally conducted to verify the co-segregation. Recessive mutations in six genes (TFEB, SNAI2, TFAP2B, PRKDC, ST18 in Pedigree 1 and PKHD1L1 in Pedigree 2) that co-segregated with SCZ in two families were discovered through genetic analysis by WES. Sanger sequencing verified that all of the mutations in the affected siblings were homozygous. These results corroborated the hypothesis that SCZ exhibits strong heterogeneity and complex inheritance patterns. The newly discovered homozygous variations deepen our understanding of the mutation spectrum and offer more proof for the involvement of TFEB, SNAI2, TFAP2B, PRKDC, ST18, and PKHD1L1 in the development of SCZ.

The regulatory role of AP-2β in monoaminergic neurotransmitter systems: insights on its signalling pathway, linked disorders and theragnostic potential

Monoaminergic neurotransmitter systems play a central role in neuronal function and behaviour. Dysregulation of these systems gives rise to neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders with high prevalence and societal burden, collectively termed monoamine neurotransmitter disorders (MNDs). Despite extensive research, the transcriptional regulation of monoaminergic neurotransmitter systems is not fully explored. Interestingly, certain drugs that act on these systems have been shown to modulate central levels of the transcription factor AP-2 beta (AP-2β, gene: TFAP2Β). AP-2β regulates multiple key genes within these systems and thereby its levels correlate with monoamine neurotransmitters measures; yet, its signalling pathways are not well understood. Moreover, although dysregulation of TFAP2Β has been associated with MNDs, the underlying mechanisms for these associations remain elusive. In this context, this review addresses AP-2β, considering its basic structural aspects, regulation and signalling pathways in the controlling of monoaminergic neurotransmitter systems, and possible mechanisms underpinning associated MNDS. It also underscores the significance of AP-2β as a potential diagnostic biomarker and its potential and limitations as a therapeutic target for specific MNDs as well as possible pharmaceutical interventions for targeting it. In essence, this review emphasizes the role of AP-2β as a key regulator of the monoaminergic neurotransmitter systems and its importance for understanding the pathogenesis and improving the management of MNDs.

Transcription factor AP-2beta in development, differentiation and tumorigenesis

To date, the AP-2 family of transcription factors comprises five members. Transcription factor AP-2beta (TFAP2B)/AP-2β was first described in 1995. Several studies indicate a critical role of AP-2β in the development of tissues and organs of ectodermal, neuroectodermal and also mesodermal origin. Germline mutation of TFAP2B is known to cause the Char syndrome, an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by facial dysmorphism, patent ductus arteriosus and anatomical abnormalities of the fifth digit. Furthermore, single-nucleotide polymorphisms in TFAP2B were linked to obesity and specific personality traits. In neoplasias, AP-2β was first described in alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma. Immunohistochemical staining of AP-2β is a recommended ancillary test for the histopathological diagnosis of this uncommon childhood malignancy. In neuroblastoma, AP-2β supports noradrenergic differentiation. Recently, the function of AP-2β in breast cancer (BC) has gained interest. AP-2β is associated with the lobular BC subtype. Moreover, AP-2β controls BC cell proliferation and has a prognostic impact in patients with BC. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the current knowledge about AP-2β and its function in organ development, differentiation and tumorigenesis.

Long-term stability of personality traits in a clinical psychiatric sample

Background: The aim of this study was to describe personality traits in psychiatric patients and to investigate whether these traits are stable over 13 years. Methods: A total of 95 individuals who were patients at a psychiatric outpatients' clinic in 2003 completed the Swedish universities Scales of Personality (SSP). Scores from 2003 were compared with SSP scores from 2016. Based on the current score on the comprehensive psychopathological rating scale - self rating for affective disorders (CPRS-S-A), the participants were divided into two groups representing 'good' and 'poor' current mental states, to investigate the effect of current mental state on reports of personality traits. Results: Out of 13 personality traits, 11 showed a significant change in mean T-score over the study interval. The group with lower CPRS-S-A scores showed a significant change in T-score for 10 traits, whereas in the group with higher CPRS-S-A scores only 3 traits showed a significant change. Conclusions: The findings support the theory that personality is changeable over the course of life, also in psychiatric patients. We do not know if persisting psychiatric symptoms halter change or if deviant personality traits cause psychiatric symptoms to continue.

Immune imbalance of global gene expression, and cytokine, chemokine and selectin levels in the brains of offspring with social deficits via maternal immune activation

The murine maternal immune activation (MIA) offspring model enables longitudinal studies to explore aberrant social behaviors similar to those observed in humans. High levels of cytokines, chemokines and cell adhesion molecules (CAM) have been found in the plasma and/or brains of psychiatric patients. We hypothesized that upregulation of the systemic or brain immune response has an augmenting effect by potentially increasing the interplay between the neuronal and immune systems during the growth of the MIA offspring. In this study, a C57BL/6j MIA female offspring model exhibiting social deficits was established. The expression of fetal interferon (IFN)-stimulated (gbp3, irgm1, ifi44), adolescent immunodevelopmental transcription factor (eg, r2, tfap2b), hormone (pomc, hcrt), adult selectin (sell, selp) and neuroligin (nlgn2) genes was altered. Systemic upregulation of endogenous IL-10 occurred at the adult stage, while both IL-1β and IL-6 were increased and persisted in the sera throughout the growth of the MIA offspring. The cerebral IL-6 levels were endogenously upregulated, but both MCP-1 (macrophage inflammatory protein-1) and L-selectin levels were downregulated at the adolescent and/or adult stages. However, the MIA offspring were susceptible to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation. After reinjecting the MIA offspring with LPS in adulthood, a variety of sera and cerebral cytokines, chemokines and CAMs were increased. Particularly, both MCP-1 and L-selectin showed relatively high expression in the brain compared with the expression levels in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS)-treated offspring injected with LPS. Potentially, MCP-1 was attracted to the L-selectin-mediated immune cells due to augmentation of the immune response following stimulation in MIA female offspring.

Influence of TFAP2B and KCTD15 genetic variability on personality dimensions in anorexia and bulimia nervosa

INTRODUCTION

TFAP2B and KCTD15 are obesity-related genes that interact to regulate feeding behavior. We hypothesize that variability in these loci, isolated or in combination, could also be related to the risk of eating disorders (ED) and/or associated psychological traits.

METHODS

We screened 425 participants (169 ED patients, 75 obese subjects, and 181 controls) for 10 clinically relevant and tag single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in KCTD15 and TFAP2B by the Sequenom MassARRAY platform and direct sequencing. Psychometric evaluation was performed with EDI-2 and SCL-90R inventories.

RESULTS

The KCTD15 rs287103 T variant allele was associated with increased risk of bulimia nervosa (BN) (OR = 4.34 [1.47-29.52]; p = .003) and with scores of psychopathological scales of these patients. Haplotype *6 in KCTD15 was more frequent in controls (OR = 0.40 [0.20-0.80], p = .009 for anorexia nervosa), while haplotype *4 in TFAP2B affected all three scales of the SCL-90R inventory in BN patients (p ≤ .01). Epistasis analyses revealed relevant interactions with body mass index of BN patients (p < .001). Genetic profiles in obese patients did not significantly differ from those found in ED patients.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first study that evaluates the combined role of TFAP2B and KCTD15 genes in ED. Our preliminary findings suggest that the interaction of genetic variability in these loci could influence the risk for ED and/or anthropometric and psychological parameters.

CRHR1 promoter hypomethylation: An epigenetic readout of panic disorder?

The corticotropin releasing hormone receptor 1 (CRHR1) is crucially involved in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and thus a major regulator of the stress response. CRHR1 gene variation is associated with several mental disorders including anxiety disorders. Studies in rodents have demonstrated epigenetic regulation of CRHR1 gene expression to moderate response to stressful environment. In the present study, we investigated CRHR1 promoter methylation for the first time regarding its role in panic disorder applying a case-control approach (N=131 patients, N=131 controls). In an independent sample of healthy volunteers (N=255), CRHR1 methylation was additionally analyzed for association with the Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI) score as a dimensional panic-related intermediate phenotype. The functional relevance of altered CRHR1 promoter methylation was investigated by means of luciferase-based reporter gene assays. In panic disorder patients, a significantly decreased CRHR1 methylation was discerned (p<0.001). Accordingly, healthy controls with high BAI scores showed significantly decreased CRHR1 methylation. Functional analyses revealed an increased gene expression in presence of unmethylated as compared to methylated pCpGl_CRHR1 reporter gene vectors. The present study identified a potential role of CRHR1 hypomethylation - conferring increased CRHR1 expression - in panic disorder and a related dimensional intermediate phenotype. This up-regulation of CRHR1 gene expression driven by de-methylation might constitute a link between the stress response and panic disorder risk.

Loss of AP-2delta reduces retinal ganglion cell numbers and axonal projections to the superior colliculus

Background

AP-2δ is the most divergent member of the Activating Protein-2 (TFAP2) family of transcription factors. AP-2δ is restricted to specific regions of the CNS, including a subset of ganglion cells in the retina. Retinal ganglion cells (RGCs), the only output neurons of the retina, are responsible for transmitting the visual signal to the brain.

Results

AP-2δ knockout results in loss of Brn3c (Pou4f3) expression in AP-2δ -positive RGCs. While AP-2δ-/- mice have morphologically normal retinas at birth, there is a significant reduction in retinal ganglion cell numbers by P21, after eye opening. Chromatin immunoprecipitation indicates that Brn3c is a target of AP-2δ in the retina. Using fluorochrome-conjugated cholera toxin subunit B to trace ganglion cell axons from the eye to the major visual pathways in the brain, we found 87 % and 32 % decreases in ipsilateral and contralateral projections, respectively, to the superior colliculus in AP-2δ-/- mice. In agreement with anatomical data, visually evoked responses recorded from the brain confirmed that retinal outputs to the brain are compromised.

Conclusions

AP-2δ is important for the maintenance of ganglion cell numbers in the retina. Loss of AP-2δ alters retinal axonal projections to visual centers of the brain, with ipsilaterial projections to the superior colliculus being the most dramatically affected. Our results have important implications for integration of the visual signal at the superior colliculus.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13041-016-0244-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Discussing the putative role of obesity-associated genes in the etiopathogenesis of eating disorders

In addition to the identification of mutations clearly related to Mendelian forms of obesity; genome-wide association studies and follow-up studies have in the last years pinpointed several loci associated with BMI. These genetic alterations are located in or near genes expressed in the hypothalamus that are involved in the regulation of eating behavior. Accordingly, it seems plausible that these SNPs, or others located in related genes, could also help develop aberrant conduct patterns that favor the establishment of eating disorders should other susceptibility factors or personality dimensions be present. However, and somewhat surprisingly, with few exceptions such as BDNF, the great majority of the genes governing these pathways remain untested in patients with anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa or binge-eating disorder. In the present work, we review the few existing studies, but also indications and biological concepts that point to these genes in the CNS as good candidates for association studies with eating disorder patients.

Neuropsychological correlates of transcription factor AP-2Beta, and its interaction with COMT and MAOA in healthy females

BACKGROUND

The transcription factor AP-2β has been shown to impact clinical and neuropsychological properties. Apparently, it regulates the transcription of genes that code for molecules which are part of the catecholaminergic transmission system. This investigation focuses on possible effects of the transcription factor AP-2β intron 2 polymorphism on cognitive performance parameters.

METHODS

This hypothesis-driven investigation examined the effects and interactions of the transcription factor AP-2β intron 2 polymorphism, the Val158Met catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) polymorphism, and the variable number of tandem repeat polymorphism of monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) on cognitive performance parameters within a group of 200 healthy women (age: mean ± SD, 23.93 ± 3.33 years).

RESULTS

The AP-2β polymorphism significantly influenced cognitive performance (in particular, the Trail Making Test part B), whereas the MAOA and COMT polymorphisms did not. However, there was an interaction effect of the AP-2β × MAOA × COMT genotypes on the decision bias β of the degraded-stimulus version of the continuous performance task. Only the Val158Met COMT polymorphism showed an influence on personality questionnaires (openness and self-transcendence; NEO Five-Factor Inventory, Temperament and Character Inventory).

CONCLUSION

The transcription factor AP-2β intron 2 polymorphism had more influence on cognition than the MAOA and COMT polymorphisms. Possibly, the AP-2β genotype might influence cognition through pathways other than those that regulate MAOA and COMT transcription. Interactions of transcription factor AP-2β, COMT, and MAOA polymorphisms suggest higher leverage effects of transcription factor AP-2β in subjects with high dopamine availability.

Association between neonatal temperament, SLC6A4, DRD4 and a functional polymorphism located in TFAP2B

Genetic studies on human personality have provided little satisfactory results to date mainly because of the complexity of this trait. Neonatal temperament using observational measures is an alternative phenotype to approach genetics to human behavior. An association study was conducted on 117 Caucasian newborns. Their temperament was evaluated using the Neonatal Behavior Assessment Scale 48 h after birth. Thirteen polymorphisms in the SLC6A4, DRD4 and TFAP2B genes were genotyped. Linear regression was performed to analyze data, and Bonferroni correction was applied. To check the functional effect of the TFAP2B Indel Intron 2 polymorphism, reporter gene luciferase assays using a mouse cortical neural progenitor cell line and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) studies in human post-mortem brain samples were performed. A significant association was found between 5-HTTLPR, 5-HTTLPR + rs25531 and TFAP2B Indel Intron 2 with Range of State cluster as well as an interaction between rs25531 and TFAP2B Indel Intron 2 with Range of State. DRD4 variable number tandem repeat exon 3 was associated with orientation. A 30% increase in the luciferase levels of the TFAP2B 5-repeat alleles compared with the 6-repeat alleles (P-value = 0.03) was found using the pGL3 promoter vector. The qPCR experiments showed the same trend as the in vitro studies, although no significant results were obtained. This study supports a role of the SLC6A4, DRD4 and TFAP2B genes in the temperament, including a gene-gene interaction between SLC6A4 and TFAP2B. It also provides evidence about an effect of the TFAP2B polymorphism in TFAP2B gene transcription.

Transcription factor AP2 beta involved in severe female alcoholism

Susceptibility to alcoholism and antisocial behavior exhibits an evident link to monoaminergic neurotransmission. The serotonin system in particular, which is associated with regulation of mood and behavior, has an influence on personality characters that are firmly connected to risk of developing alcoholism and antisocial behavior, such as impulsiveness, and aggression. The transcription factor TFAP2b has repeatedly been shown to be involved in monoaminergic transmission, likely due to a regulatory effect on genes that are fundamental to this system, e.g. monoamine oxidase type A, and the serotonin transporter. Recent research has identified a functional polymorphism in the gene encoding TFAP2B that regulates its level of expression. In the present study we have compared a sample of female alcoholics (n=107), sentenced to institutional care for their severe addiction, contrasted against a control sample of adolescent females (n=875). The results showed that parental alcohol misuse was significantly more common among the alcoholic females, and also that parental alcohol misuse was associated with a reduction in age of alcohol debut. We also addressed the question of whether a functional TFAP2b polymorphism was associated with alcoholism. Results showed that the high-functioning allele was significantly more common among the female alcoholics, compared to the non-alcoholic controls. Furthermore, the results also indicated that psychosocial factors, in terms of parental alcohol misuse, depression or psychiatric disorder, had an influence on the association. It was observed that the genetic association was restricted to the subset of cases that had not experienced these negative psychosocial factors.

Transcription factor AP-2 beta genotype and psychosocial adversity in relation to adolescent depressive symptomatology

The aim of this study was to investigate possible interactions between the gene coding for activating protein-2 beta (AP-2 beta) and psychosocial factors to predict depressive symptoms in adolescents. Two-hundred 16- and 19-year-old adolescents from the county of Västmanland, Sweden, were asked to complete a questionnaire, interviewed about psychosocial risk factors, and genotyped with regard to the transcription factor AP-2 beta intron 2 polymorphism. AP-2 beta genotype interacted significantly both with type of housing and parental separation to predict depressive symptoms. Individuals who were homozygous for the short AP-2 beta allele displayed higher depression scores when psychosocial adversity was taken into account. Amongst carriers of one or two copies of the long allele, there was no difference in depressive symptoms despite differences in psychosocial environments.

Personality traits measured by the Swedish universities Scales of Personality: factor structure and position within the five-factor model in an Estonian sample

The study aims to test the reliability and validity of the Estonian version of the Swedish universities Scales of Personality (SSP), and to characterize the position of the SSP-measured traits within the basic personality dimensions of the five-factor model. A total of 529 participants completed the Estonian version of the SSP. A subsample of 197 persons completed the SSP together with the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R). The internal consistency of the SSP scales was satisfactory. Principal component analysis yielded three factors representing neuroticism, aggression and disinhibition. The factor solution obtained in the Estonian sample was similar to the original SSP study in the Swedish normative sample. NEO-PI-R Neuroticism had highest correlations with SSP neuroticism factor scales. Extraversion had strongest relationship with adventure seeking and low detachment. Agreeableness correlated positively with SSP social desirability and negatively to aggression-irritability scales. Conscientiousness facet Deliberation correlated with Impulsiveness. The Estonian SSP showed acceptable reliability and validity, which confirms that SSP is applicable in different social and cultural background. The SSP measures traits that correspond to the major personality models. The SSP characterizes three broad dimensions of personality, namely neuroticism, disinhibition and aggression, which are useful in assessment of personality correlates of mental disorders.

Electrophysiological and behavioral correlates of polymorphisms in the transcription factor AP-2beta coding gene

Transcription factor AP-2beta may influence brain monoaminergic systems by regulating target genes. Several monoaminergic genes, including the serotonin transporter gene, have AP-2beta binding sites. Late auditory-evoked potentials (P1, N1/P2) and impulsiveness-related personality traits are correlated, and both are modulated by monoaminergic neurotransmission. The present study assesses the impact of two AP-2beta polymorphisms (VNTRs within intron 1 and 2) together with the serotonin transporter polymorphism 5-HTTLPR on late auditory-evoked potentials and personality for the first time. EEG was recorded from 91 male subjects at central electrode positions while tones of six intensity levels were presented. Additionally, subjects completed personality questionnaires. Both AP-2beta polymorphisms revealed significant main effects on P1, and haplotype analysis confirmed the contribution of both AP-2beta-polymorphisms. Additionally, AP-2beta and 5-HTTLPR showed interactions with respect to P1. 5-HTTLPR revealed a main effect on N1/P2 but not P1. Impulsiveness showed an association with intron 1 VNTR. The results are discussed with respect to differential impact of AP-2beta polymorphisms and 5-HTTLPR on the monoaminergic systems. The findings promote replication in a larger sample and suggest a potential usefulness of AP-2beta polymorphisms in explaining or predicting central nervous diseases, drug effects and side effects.

Genes encoding for AP-2β and the Serotonin Transporter are associated with the Personality Character Spiritual Acceptance

In several twin studies the relative contribution of genetic factors for personality traits has amounted to figures between 40 and 60%. In the present study we investigated to which degree polymorphisms in the 5-HTT and AP-2beta genes are implicated in the neural processes involved in the formation of Temperament and Character traits, as estimated by Cloninger's TCI. Considering the background of previous reports, associations with the character Self-Transcendence and its sub-scale Spiritual Acceptance in particular, were of interest. A stratified random sample of 200 individuals (total population=5173), matched for age, gender and risk behaviors, from volunteering 16- and 19-year-old adolescents students in Sweden was investigated. Cloninger's TCI inventory was used for investigation of temperament and character traits. Blood samples were used for analyses of a promoter serotonin transporter polymorphism (5-HTTLPR) and an intron 2 polymorphism in the transcription factor AP-2beta gene. Among boys individuals with presence of the short 5-HTTLPR genotype showed lower scores, whereas individuals with presence of the short AP-2beta genotype showed higher scores of personality character Self-Transcendence and its sub-scale Spiritual Acceptance. Among girls no effect of either genotype was found. Both among boys and girls, significant interactive effects were found between 5-HTTLPR and AP-2beta genotypes, with regard to Self-Transcendence and Spiritual acceptance. Boys and girls with the combination of presence of the short 5-HTTLPR, and homozygosity for the long AP-2beta genotype scored significantly lower on Self-Transcendence and Spiritual Acceptance.

Transcription factor AP-2 and monoaminergic functions in the central nervous system

In the central nervous system, transcription factor AP-2 family is one of the critical regulatory factors for neural gene expression and neuronal development. Several genes in the monoaminergic systems display AP-2 binding sites in regulatory regions. In addition, brainstem levels of transcription factor AP-2alpha and AP-2beta are positively correlated to monoamine measures in rat forebrain, suggesting a regulatory role of AP-2 also in the adult brain. Great changes in psychiatric phenotypes due to genetic factors are seldom the result of a single gene polymorphism. Recently, identification of combinations of candidate genes that are all linked to one disease or psychiatric phenotype has been discussed. The expression of these candidate genes might be regulated by the same transcription factors, e.g. AP-2. Recent data on transcription factor AP-2 family in relation to monoaminergic functions are described in this paper. Transcription factor AP-2beta genotype has been studied in relation to personality, platelet monoamine oxidase (MAO) activity, CSF-levels of monoamine metabolites, binge-eating disorder, premenstrual dysphoric disorder, and schizophrenia. Furthermore, the involvement of AP-2 in the molecular mechanism of antidepressant drugs is discussed. Altogether, this paper discusses data supporting a notion that the transcription factor AP-2 family is involved in the regulation of the monoaminergic systems both pre- and postnatally, and, therefore, might be involved in the pathophysiology of neuropsychiatric disorders.

Brainstem levels of transcription factor AP-2 in rat are changed after treatment with phenelzine, but not with citalopram

BACKGROUND

Before therapeutic effect is obtained after treatment with antidepressant drugs, like serotonin selective reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) and monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAO-Is) there is an initial lag-period of a few weeks. Neuronal adaptations on a molecular level are supposed to be involved in the initiation of the antidepressant effect. Transcription factor AP-2 is essential for neuronal development and many genes involved in the brainstem monoaminergic systems have binding sites for AP-2 in their regulatory regions. The genotype of the AP-2beta isoform has been associated with e.g. anxiety-related personality traits and with platelet MAO activity. In addition, previous studies have shown that the levels of AP-2alpha and AP-2beta in rat whole brain were decreased after 10 days of treatment with citalopram (SSRI) and imipramine (TCA), and were increased with phenelzine (MAO-I).

RESULTS

In the present study, we report that treatment with citalopram for 1, 7 or 21 days did not have effect on the AP-2 levels in rat brainstem. However, after treatment with phenelzine for 1, 7 or 21 days the levels of AP-2alpha and AP-2beta had increased after 7 days, but had returned to control levels at day 21.

CONCLUSION

The decrease in AP-2 levels in rat whole brain previously seen after treatment with citalopram does not seem to be localised to the brainstem, it may rather occur in the monoaminergic terminal projection areas. The present data suggest that the increase in AP-2 levels previously seen in rat whole brain after subchronic treatment with phenelzine is located in the brainstem. It cannot, however, be excluded that other brain regions are involved.

Investigation of transcription factor AP-2 beta genotype in women with premenstrual dysphoric disorder

It has repeatedly been shown that the serotonergic system is involved in the symptomatology of premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD). Women with PMDD are reported to differ from symptom-free controls with regard to serotonin-related biological markers. Evidence from family and twin studies suggests a genetic contribution to the aetiology of PMDD. The expression of human transcription factor AP-2beta in neural crest cell lineages and neuroectodermal cells suggests that this protein may be of importance for functional characteristics of neurons by regulating the expression of target genes. Within the monoaminergic systems, several genes have binding sites for AP-2beta in regulatory regions, suggesting an involvement of AP-2beta in these systems. The gene encoding AP-2beta is located on chromosome 6p12-p21.1 and includes a polymorphic region consisting of a variable number of [CAAA] repeats located in the second intron. We have earlier shown that AP-2beta genotype is associated with serotonergic phenotypes and that brainstem levels of AP-2beta correlate positively to serotonin metabolism in rat frontal cortex. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between PMDD and transcription factor AP-2beta genotype. The participants included 176 women with PMDD and 91 healthy controls. Genotyping was performed by polymerase chain reactions. We did not observe any differences in AP-2beta genotype frequencies between PMDD subjects and controls. Our results suggest that AP-2beta genotype is not a risk factor for PMDD. To our knowledge, this is the first study investigating transcription factor AP-2beta genotype in women with PMDD. Hence, these results should be considered preliminary until replicated.

The influence of personality, measured by the Karolinska Scales of Personality (KSP), on symptoms among subjects in suspected sick buildings

The aim was to study possible relationships between personality traits as measured by the Karolinska Scales of Personality (KSP), a self-report personality inventory based on psychobiological theory, and medical symptoms, in subjects with previous work history in suspected sick buildings. The study comprised 195 participants from 19 consecutive cases of suspected sick buildings, initially collected in 1988-92. In 1998-89, the KSP inventory and a symptoms questionnaire were administered in a postal follow-up study. There were 16 questions on symptoms, including symptoms from the eyes, nose, throat, skin, and headache, tiredness, and a symptom score (SC), ranging from 0 to 16, was calculated. The questionnaire also requested information on personal factors, including age, gender, smoking habits, allergy and diagnosed asthma. The KSP ratings in the study group did not differ from the mean personality scale norm scores, calculated from an external reference group. Females had higher scores for somatic anxiety (P < 0.01), muscular tension (P < 0.001), psychic anxiety (P < 0.01), psychasthenia (P < 0.05), indirect aggression (P < 0.05), and guilt (P < 0.05), while males scored higher on detachment (P < 0.001). Subjects with higher SC were found to display higher degree of somatic anxiety (P < 0.001), muscular tension (P < 0.001), psychic anxiety (P < 0.001), psychasthenia (P < 0.001), inhibition of aggression (P < 0.05), detachment (P < 0.05), suspicion (P < 0.01), indirect aggression (P < 0.01), and verbal aggression (P < 0.05). In addition, ocular, respiratory, dermal, and systemic symptoms (headache and tiredness) were significantly related to anxiety- and aggressivity-related scales. There were associations between personality scales and change of symptom score (SC) during the 9-year period. The associations between KSP personality traits and symptoms were more pronounced in females. In conclusion, there are gender differences in personality and SBS symptoms. Personality may play a role in the occurrence of symptoms studied in indoor environmental epidemiology. Our results support a view that measurement of personality could be of value in future studies and vulnerability to environmental stress.

PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS

Personality and personal vulnerability should be considered in both indoor environmental epidemiology and practical handling of building with suspected indoor problem, especially when the technical investigations fail to identify any obvious technical malfunction. Moreover, personality aspects should be considered among subjects with possible vulnerable personality exposed to environmental stress, and personality diagnosis can be a complementary tool useful when assessing 'sick building patients' in the medical services. We found no evidence of severe personality pathology in among those working in workplaces with environmental problems so called 'sick buildings'.