Morphological and Morphometric Analysis of the Adrenal Cortex of Androgenized Female Rats

A brief insight into the etiology, genetics, and immunology of polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS)

Polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) is a prevailing endocrine and metabolic disorder occurring in about 6-20% of females in reproductive age. Most symptoms of PCOS arise early during puberty. Since PCOS involves a combination of signs and symptoms, thus it is considered as a heterogeneous disorderliness. The most accepted diagnostic criteria is Rotterdam criteria which involves two of the latter three features: (a) hyperandrogenism, (b) oligo- or an-ovulation, and (c) polycystic ovaries. The persistent hormonal imbalance leads to multiple small antral follicles formation and irregular menstrual cycle, ultimately causing infertility among females. Insulin resistance, cardiovascular diseases, abdominal obesity, psychological disorders, infertility, and cancer are also related to PCOS. These pathophysiologies associated with PCOS are interrelated with each other. Hyperandrogenism causes insulin resistance and hyperglycemia, leading to ROS formation, oxidative stress, and abdominal adiposity. In consequence, inflammation, ROS production, insulin resistance, and hyperandrogenemia also increase. Elevation of AGEs in the body either produced endogenously or consumed from diet exaggerates PCOS symptoms and is also related to ovarian dysfunction. This review summarizes how AGE formation, inflammation, and oxidative stress are significantly essential in PCOS progression. Alterations during prenatal development like exposure to excess AMH, androgens, or toxins (bisphenol-A, endocrine disruptors, etc.) may also be the etiologic mechanism behind PCOS. Although the etiology of this disorder is unclear, environmental and genetic factors are primarily involved. Physical inactivity, as well as unhealthy eating habits, has a vital role in the progression of PCOS. This review outlines a collection of specific genes phenotypically linked with PCOS. Furthermore, beneficial effect of metformin in maintaining endocrine abnormalities and ovarian function is also mentioned. Kisspeptin is a protein which helps in onset of puberty and increases GnRH pulsatile release during ovulation as well as role of KNDy neurons in GnRH pulsatile signal required for reproduction are also elaborated. This review also focuses on the immunology related to PCOS involving chronic low-grade inflammation, and how the alterations within the follicular microenvironment are intricated in the development of infertility in PCOS patients. How PCOS develops following antiepileptic and psychiatric medication is also expanded in this review. Initiation of antiandrogen treatment in early age (≤ 25 years) might be helpful in spontaneous conception in PCOS women. The role of BMP (bone morphogenetic proteins) in folliculogenesis and their expression in oocytes and granulosa cells are also explained. GDF8 and SERPINE1 expression in PCOS is given in detail.

Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome and Menopause in Forty Plus Women

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is the most common endocrine disorder in women of reproductive age group, but it affects women's health and quality of life across the life course. During different stages of life, the PCOS phenotype can change, which requires a personalized diagnostic approach and treatment. With increasing age, the syndrome evolves from a reproductive disease to a more metabolic disorder. Along with various metabolic disturbances like insulin resistance and abnormalities of energy expenditure, PCOS is recognized as a major risk factor for the development of type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease (CVD) in later life. The aim of the current review was to conduct a nonsystematic review of published literature and research that has been presented so far regarding menopausal women with PCOS as well as the associated changes in hormone profile, their lipid profile, and various metabolic changes that occur. The current review may also contribute to raise awareness about the risk of hypertension and CVDs in postmenopausal women with PCOS.

Comprehensive evaluation of the combined extracts of Epimedii Folium and Ligustri Lucidi Fructus for PMOP in ovariectomized rats based on MLP-ANN methods

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Kidney deficiency is the main pathogenesis of osteoporosis based on the theory of "kidney governing bones" in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). Osteoporosis is a systemic disease; kidney deficiency influences the growth, aging and reproduction of human body, reflecting in endocrine, nerve, immunity, metabolism and other functions. Multi-target drugs composed of natural non-toxic products from kidney-reinforcing herbs, are being investigated for the treatment of osteoporosis. Therefore, it is necessary and imperative to develop an objective and comprehensive method to evaluate and compare the effects of herbs with listed drugs.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study was designed to evaluate and compare the therapeutic effects and the underlying molecular mechanism of the combined extracts of Epimedii Folium and Ligustri Lucidi Fructus (EL) with Raloxifene hydrochloride (RH) in ovariectomy (OVX)-induced postmenopausal osteoporosis (PMOP) rats based on the multi-layer perception (MLP)-artificial neural network (ANN) model.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Female SD rats were subjected to either sham surgery (n = 8) or bilateral OVX (n = 48). One week after recovering from surgery, the OVX-induced rats were randomly divided into three groups: OVX model group (n = 32, every 8 rats were killed at the end of the 5th, 9th, 11th or 13th week after OVX), EL group (treated with EL 0.35 g/kg, n = 8), and RH group (treated with RH 6.25 mg/kg, n = 8). The rats in the treatment groups were administrated once a day for 12 weeks, then sacrificed. We observed bone mass and quality, bone remodeling, the function of estrogen and TGF-β1/Smads pathway in all rats.

RESULTS

Both EL and RH could increase bone mineral density, enhance bone strength, relieve bone micro-structure degeneration, re-balance bone remodeling, regulate estrogen dysfunction, and up-regulate TGF-β1 expression. The evaluation of the MLP-ANN model showed that EL and RH had markedly anti-PMOP effects, and there was no significant difference in the comprehensive evaluation of anti-osteoporosis between the two drugs. However, RH had better effects on bone mass and quality and TGF-β1/Smads pathway than EL; EL had better effects on estrogen function than RH.

CONCLUSION

Combined extracts of Epimedii Folium and Ligustri Lucidi Fructus (EL) exhibited bone-protective effects on PMOP. The MLP-ANN method evaluated the efficacy of drugs more comprehensively, which provided a new direction for the evaluation and comparison of drugs.

Effects of anastrozole on Ki-67 antigen expression in the vaginal epithelium of female rats in persistent estrus

OBJECTIVES

Aromatase inhibitors are the first-choice drugs for the treatment of hormone sensitive breast cancer. However, in addition to the scarcity of studies, there are controversies about their effects on vaginal epithelial cell proliferation in rats, especially those in persistent estrus.

METHODS

To investigate vaginal epithelial cell proliferation by Ki-67 antigen expression, persistent estrus was induced in 42 randomly selected rats. These rats were randomly divided into 2 groups: group I (control, n=21), which received 0.1 mL of propylene glycol (vehicle) daily, and group II (experimental, n=21), which received 0.5 mg/kg or 0.125 mg/day of anastrozole diluted with 0.1 mL of propylene glycol.

RESULTS

Light microscopy showed a higher concentration of cells with brown Ki-67 stained nuclei in the control compared to the experimental group. The mean percentage of Ki-67 stained nuclei per 500 cells in the vaginal epithelium was 68.64±2.64 and 30.46±2.00 [mean±standard error of the mean (SEM)] in the control and experimental groups, respectively (p<0.003).

CONCLUSION

This study showed that anastrozole, at the dose and treatment duration selected, significantly decreased cell proliferation in the vaginal mucosa of the rats in persistent estrus.

Ki-67 antigen expression in the mammary epithelium of female rats in persistent estrus treated with anastrozole

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate Ki-67 antigen expression in mammary epithelium of female rats in persistent estrus treated with anastrozole.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Twenty-eight Wistar-Hanover female rats in persistent estrus induced by subcutaneous injection of 1.25 mg of testosterone propionate in the second day of life were randomly divided into two groups, control and experimental, with 14 animals each. The animals of control group received only the vehicle (propyleneglycol) and the animals of group experimental received 0.125 mg daily of anastrozole by gavage during 28 days. After 28 days of treatment, all animals were sacrificed and the first pair of abdominal-inguinal mammary glands was removed and fixed in 10% buffered formalin to investigate Ki-67 antigen expression by immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

The mean percentage of Ki-67-stained nuclei per 500 cells in the mammary epithelium was 76.97 ± 0.76 and 14.44 ± 2.02 [mean ± standard error of the mean (SEM)] in the control and experimental groups, respectively (p < 0.0001).

CONCLUSIONS

Anastrozole treatment significantly reduced Ki-67 expression in the mammary epithelium of rats in persistent estrus.

Current aspects of polycystic ovary syndrome: A literature review

SUMMARY Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a heterogeneous endocrine disorder with variable prevalence, affecting about one in every 15 women worldwide. The diagnosis of polycystic ovary syndrome requires at least two of the following criteria: oligoovulation and/or anovulation, clinical and/or biochemical evidence of hyperandrogenism and morphology of polycystic ovaries. Women with PCOS appear to have a higher risk of developing metabolic disorders, hypertension and cardiovascular disorders. The aim of this article was to present a review of the literature by searching the databases Pubmed and Scielo, focusing on publications related to polycystic ovaries, including its pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, diagnosis and therapeutic aspects, as well as its association with cardiovascular and arterial hypertensive disorders.

Effects of metformin on the adrenal cortex of androgenized rats

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the sex steroid profile and histomorphometry of the adrenal cortical zones of androgenized rats (wistar) with polycystic ovary syndrome treated with metformin.

STUDY DESIGN

Thirty animals were divided into three groups: GC (regular estrous cycle), GPE (permanent estrus), and GPEM (permanent estrus + metformin 28 mg/kg for 50 days). At the end of this period, blood was collected for hormone measurement. The width of the adrenal cortical zones and the nuclear volumes were analyzed by histomorphometry. The ANOVA test was used in the statistical analysis.

RESULTS

The adrenal glands of the androgenized animals were larger and more intensely vascularized than those of the other groups. The concentration of androstenedione in GPE was higher than that in the other groups (0.4 ± 0.1*>= 0.2 ± 0.1 = 0.2 ± 01, *p < 0.05). The width of the zona glomerulosa and of the zona reticularis and their nuclear volumes were greater in GPE compared to those of the other groups (GPE* > GPEM = GC, *p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Metformin treatment may decrease the serum levels of androstenedione as well as the width and the nuclear volumes of the zona glomerulosa and of the zona reticularis in androgenized animals.

Comparative Study of Tamoxifen and Raloxifene on Endometrial Cell Proliferation of Female Rats in Persistent Estrus

Objective

The objective of the study was to compare the effect of tamoxifen and raloxifene on the endometrium of female rats in persistent estrus, by Ki-67 protein expression.

Methods

The study comprised 60 Wistar-Hannover female rats in persistent estrus, induced by a single subcutaneous dose of 1.25 mg of testosterone propionate on the second day of age. At 90 days of life, the animals were randomly divided into 3 groups of 20 animals each. Group 1 (control), received only placebo; group 2, the animals were treated with tamoxifen, 250 μg/d; and group 3, the rats were treated with 750 μg/d of raloxifene by gavage during 30 days. Then, the animals were killed, and the endometrium was removed for immunohistochemical analysis of Ki-67 antigen expression. Statistical analysis was performed by β regression model (P < 0.05).

Results

Mean percentages of Ki-67 protein expression in the endometrium of rats in persistent estrus were 43.21% ± 3.39%, 7.36% ± 0.95%, and 7.20% ± 0.76% in groups 1, 2 and 3, respectively (P < 0.001). There was no statistical difference between groups 2 and 3 (P = 0.7159).

Conclusions

The present results indicate that, at the doses and during the time of treatment used, both tamoxifen and raloxifene induce atrophy in a similar way of endometrial epithelium of rats in persistent estrus.

Assessment of micronucleus frequency in the peripheral blood of female rats in persistent estrus treated with selective estrogen receptor modulators

The aim of this study was to evaluate micronucleus (MN) frequency in polychromatic erythrocytes (PCE) of female rats in persistent estrus (a model developed to mimic polycystic ovary syndrome) treated with selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs, tamoxifen, and raloxifene). Forty female Wistar-Hannover rats were divided into four groups of 10 animals each: Group I (normally cycling rats) and Group II (persistent estrus) both received only vehicle, while Group III (persistent estrus) was treated with tamoxifen (250 μg/animal/day) and Group IV (persistent estrus) was treated with raloxifene (750 μg/animal/day). Tamoxifen and raloxifene were given by oral gavage beginning on postnatal day 90 and continuing for 30 consecutive days. Peripheral blood samples were collected from tails 1 day following the last exposure. Blood smears were made on glass slides and stained with 10% Giemsa solution. ANOVA and a Tukey post-hoc test were used for data analysis. Mean percentages of MN were 1.82 ± 0.13, 5.20 ± 0.24, 3.32 ± 0.13, and 3.04 ± 0.12 in Groups I, II, III, and IV, respectively. The results indicate that tamoxifen and raloxifene similarly reduced the formation of MNPCE of female rats in persistent estrus (P < 0.0001 for Groups III and IV vs. Group II), using the dosages and time periods applied in the present study. The data suggest possibly antimutagenic effects of SERMs under high levels of estrogens. The findings also suggest that this is an interesting animal model for studying the genotoxicity of estrogens.

Effects of raloxifene on the mammary epithelium of female rats in persistent estrus

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to evaluate the morphological and morphometric alterations produced by raloxifene in the mammary epithelium of female rats in persistent estrus.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Twenty-one female Wistar-Hannover rats in persistent estrus induced by 1.25 mg of testosterone propionate were randomly divided into two groups: Group I (n = 10), receiving only water and used as control; Group II (experimental, n = 11), treated with 3 mg of raloxifene daily for 21 days. The first abdominoinguinal pair of mammary glands was extirpated and processed for morphological and morphometric evaluation. The data were statistically analysed using Student's t-test (p < 0.05).

RESULTS

Morphology revealed signs of epithelial atrophy, and morphometry showed a significant reduction in the mean number of ducts and alveoli in the experimental group (12.82 +/- 0.42 and 2.91 +/- 0.53, respectively) when compared with the control group (28.70 +/- 1.15 and 7.20 +/- 0.57, respectively). This difference was statistically significant, both for the ducts and for the alveoli (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

The present results indicate that, at the dose and during the time of treatment used, raloxifene induced atrophy of the mammary epithelium of rats in persistent estrus.