Seasonal modification of ovine pineal function. 2. Steroidal effects on melatonin and prolactin profiles

The mammalian gastro-intestinal tract is a NOT a major extra-pineal source of melatonin

In 1992, a paper reported that the melatonin content of the rat duodenum was 24 000 ± 2000 pg/g tissue (range: 4000-100 000 pg/g) while the pineal melatonin content was 580 000 ± 36 000 pg/g. The data has been used for the last 30 years to infer that the gut produces 400 hundred times more melatonin than the pineal gland and that it is the source of plasma melatonin during the daytime. No-one has ever challenged the statement. In this review, evidence is summarised from the literature that pinealectomy eliminates melatonin from the circulation and that studies to the contrary have relied upon poorly validated immunoassays that overstate the levels. Similarly studies that have reported increases in plasma melatonin following tryptophan administration failed to account for cross reactivity of tryptophan and its metabolites in immunoassays. The most extraordinary observation from the literature is that in those studies that have measured melatonin in the gut since 1992, the tissue content is vastly lower than the original report, even when the methodology used could be overestimating the melatonin content due to cross reactivity. Using the more contemporary results we can calculate that rather than a 400:1 ratio of duodenum: pineal melatonin, a ratio of 0.05-0.19: 1 is likely. The gut is not a major extra-pineal source of melatonin; indeed it may well not produce any.

Serum concentrations of melatonin during scotophase and photophase in 3, 4, 5 and 6 months old gilts and barrows

One-hundred-twenty prepubertal crossbred gilts (Hampshire x Duroc) x (Yorkshire x Landrace) were removed from the nursery at 68.7+/-0.4 days of age and 23.6+/-0.9 kg body weight and relocated to a conventional grower-finisher unit. In addition, 60 barrows of similar genetics were relocated from the nursery at 71.0+/-0.5 days of age and 27.4+/-0.5 kg body weight to the same building. Twelve mature anestrous ewes that weighed 77.0+/-2.4 kg were assigned randomly to one of four pens of equal dimensions among the pens containing pigs. Ewes were included in this study to serve as positive controls since their secretory profiles of melatonin are well characterized. All pigs were bled by jugular venipuncture at approximately 3, 4, 5 and 6 months of age. At each age in the pigs and the mature ewes, a single sample was obtained during photophase and scotophase. Illumination intensity during the period of incandescent lighting averaged 220 1x. Blood collection was initiated approximately 4 h after sunrise and 3.5-4 h after sunset. The proportion of animals that exhibited a nocturnal rise in melatonin (MEL) was similar (P > 0.05) between gilts and barrows, but was higher (P < 0.002) in ewes than in pigs at each age examined. A greater proportion (P = 0.007) of 3 month old barrows had a nocturnal rise of MEL than any other age of barrow. Similarly, there was a tendency (P = 0.06) for more 3 month old gilts to exhibit a nocturnal increase in serum MEL than 4, 5 or 6 month old gilts.

Serum concentrations of melatonin in prepubertal gilts exposed to either constant or stepwise biweekly alteration in scotophase

Melatonin (MEL), a hormone known to mediate photoperiodic cues, is secreted from the pineal gland in a circadian fashion in numerous species. The transduction of photoperiodic information into the secretion of MEL, however, remains controversial in the pig. To determine whether domestic pigs have a nocturnal increase in serum melatonin when exposed to equatorial photoperiods only, 24 prepubertal gilts (38.7 +/- 0.7 kg; 104.5 +/- 0.8 d) and 12 mature ewes, serving as positive controls, were randomly assigned to one of two environmentally regulated rooms. The light (L):dark (D) schedule in one room remained constant (10 L:14 D), while the other room scotophase (darkness duration) was decreased by 1 hr every 2 wk (Experiment 1). After a 2-wk acclimation to each new schedule, 6 ewes and 6 gilts in each room were bled by venipuncture at 2-hr intervals for 22 hr. Experiment 2 was conducted as described for Experiment 1, except that the LD schedule in one room remained constant (15L:9D) while length of scotophase in the other room was increased by 1 hr every 2 wk. In gilts that were exposed to constant 10L:14D, scotophase MEL in serum averaged 103 +/- 13 pg/ml as compared with 57 +/- 13 pg/ml in the photophase. Using each gilt's initial photophase value as a statistical covariate, scotophase MEL in the constant 10L:14D schedule was higher (P < 0.001) than photophase MEL. A similar analysis of MEL in gilts exposed to stepwise biweekly decreases in scotophase revealed a scotophase elevation (P < 0.05) in only certain LD schedules (i.e., 12L:12D and 13L:11D), but the same trend was present throughout all LD schedules. Subjective examination of individual gilt profiles revealed that 56% of gilts had a nocturnal increase in serum MEL in Experiment 1. However, only 10% of the MEL profiles were closely coupled to the environmental LD periods. Overall, mean serum MEL in gilts was of lesser magnitude and more variable than in ewes. Data from these two experiments suggests that the domestic pig has an inherently weak nocturnal elevation in serum MEL, and the ability to detect these rises is dampened by considerable pig-to-pig variability.

Castration and testosterone induced changes in the pinealocytes of roseringed parakeet, Psittacula krameri, during different phases of the annual testicular cycle

The pinealocytes in male roseringed parakeets (Psittacula krameri) were studied following bilateral castration and/or therapeutic administration of testosterone during the preparatory (June-July), progressive (Nov.-Dec.), pre-breeding (Jan.-Feb.) and breeding (March-April) phases of the annual testicular cycle. The responses of the pineal to either treatment were found to be almost identical throughout the investigation. In each reproductive phase, the pineal appeared to be hypertrophied following castration and the effect was reversed by therapeutic administration of testosterone, while hormonal treatment to the intact parakeets induced regressive changes in the pinealocytes. Collectively, the results of the current study support the hypothesis that the testis through its hormone testosterone exerts inhibitory influences on the activity of pineal, and may thus be considered as being involved in the determination of an inverse relationship between the pineal and the testis during the annual cycle of free-living parakeets.

Effect of pinealectomy and plane of nutrition on wool growth in Merino sheep

The effects of surgical pinealectomy and plane of nutrition on wool growth and plasma prolactin concentrations in young Merino wethers were investigated. In young pinealectomized wethers maintained at a low live weight under conditions of minimal stress, the decline of conditioned clean wool production on midside patches was slowed when compared to pineal-intact controls. This difference appeared to be due in part to the observed greater secondary wool follicle density in the pinealectomized wethers; mean fiber diameter was affected to a smaller extent, while staple length growth rate was not significantly altered. Circulating prolactin profiles showed a seasonal variation (high in summer, low in winter) in both pinealectomized and control wethers. There was no difference in wool production between pinealectomized and control wethers when the diet of the same wethers was subsequently supplemented with formaldehyde-treated cottonseed meal. While the role of melatonin in the regulation of wool growth remains to be determined, it is suggested that the hormone may have a transient effect on wool production in young wethers under conditions of limited nutrition, but not at higher nutritional levels, and that melatonin may be involved in partitioning of nutrients to the wool follicle.

Effects of pinealectomy on wool growth and wool follicle density in merino sheep

There is evidence to indicate that pinealectomy may enhance wool growth in the sheep. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of pinealectomy on wool growth and wool follicle density in Merino sheep. Castrated Merino rams (4 months old) were either pinealectomized (P), sham-pinealectomized (S) or not treated (C). Wool growth on mid-side patches was measured every 4 weeks and follicle density was monitored in skin biopsies collected before treatment and at regular intervals for 60 weeks. Venous blood samples were taken on each of these occasions for prolactin analysis. Melatonin concentrations were determined in venous blood collected pre- and posttreatment from samples taken over a 24-hr period during the winter solstice. Pre- and posttreatment plasma melatonin levels (mean +/- SEM) 65 +/- 17 and < 13 pg/ml for P, 86 +/- 21 and 69 +/- 20 pg/ml for S, and 94 +/- 41 and 122 +/- 37 pg/ml for C, respectively, indicated that the pineal glands had been successfully removed. Wool growth, total follicle density and liveweight (mean +/- SEM) did not differ between treatment groups. Measurements at week 60 were 3.9 +/- 0.3, 4.1 +/- 0.2, and 3.8 +/- 0.3 gm clean wool/100 cm2; 66 +/- 6, 69 +/- 7, and 64 +/- 3 follicles/mm2; and 50.4 +/- 1.3, 50.8 +/- 1.4, and 52.6 +/- 1.1 kg liveweight for groups P, S, and C, respectively.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Effect of immunization against melatonin on seasonal fleece growth in feral goats

Four vaccination protocols were utilized to investigate the effects of immunoneutralizing circulating melatonin on the annual cashmere growth cycle and cashmere production in Australian feral goats. A fluctuating anti-melatonin antibody response, achieved by repeated booster vaccinations, resulted in an acceleration of the growth cycle in goats which exhibited a significant immune response, compared to sham-immunized controls. Responding goats showed two cycles of cashmere length growth in the first 16 months and increased annual cashmere production in the first year. However, in the second year, these effects were no longer apparent, suggesting either some form of desensitization to melatonin, or a diminished response due to declining antibody titre. The effects of immunization were observed in both sexes; the effect on cashmere length was greater in wethers than in does. Cashmere fibre growth in response to a continuously declining plane of specific antibody showed increased cycle frequency, albeit with a decreased amplitude; guard hair growth cycles were affected to a much lesser extent. Small transient peaks of specific immunity at the summer or winter solstice were without significant effect on cashmere growth. Immunization to provoke a persistent anti-melatonin antibody response at the winter solstice resulted in significantly increased greasy fleece weight, % cashmere yield, and mass of cashmere produced, but no change in fibre diameter in both sexes. Thus the timing of cashmere growth cycles in goats may be, at least transiently, altered by appropriately timed immunization against melatonin. The mechanism of pineal-mediated regulation of cashmere growth cycles may involve (i) entrainment of an endogenous rhythm by melatonin, or (ii) seasonal alteration of cashmere follicle sensitivity to the effect of melatonin.

Seasonal profiles of melatonin in adult rams

The objective of this study was to investigate the seasonal changes in melatonin profiles based on frequently collected samples in adult rams maintained under simulated natural photoperiod. In a group of six rams, the seasonal changes of melatonin were characterized in samples collected at 10-min intervals for an equal period before and after the median of the scotophase during the spring (March) and the autumn (September) equinoxes, and also during the summer (June) and the winter (December) solstices. In an additional two rams, the rapid changes in melatonin concentrations were investigated in samples drawn at 2-min intervals for a 2-hr period before and after the median of the scotophase, but only during the summer and the winter solstices. The results show that in adult rams there is a distinct seasonal variation in the nightly rise of melatonin (P less than 0.01). Mean concentrations in June and September were higher than in March or December (P less than 0.05). There was no difference between the means in June or September. However, the means in March were lower than in December (P less than 0.05). Rapid changes in melatonin concentrations occurred in samples collected either at 10-min or 2-min intervals. In rams sampled at 2-min intervals, mean melatonin values in June were also higher than in December (P less than 0.01). The results suggest that there are distinct seasonal changes in melatonin concentrations in the ram and that rapid changes in melatonin concentrations reflect pulsatile secretion.

Effects of different lighting regimes on daily hormonal and behavioural rhythms in the pregnant ewe and sheep fetus

1. We have studied the effect of altering the time of darkness during a 12 h photoperiod on the diurnal rhythms of maternal and fetal plasma melatonin and prolactin concentrations and fetal breathing movements (FBMs) in the late pregnant sheep. 2. Four ewes were exposed to a 'normal' 12 h light-12 h dark regime with lights off at 19.00 h. Eight ewes were exposed to an 'altered' 12 h light-12 h dark regime with lights off at 11.00 h. FBMs were recorded continuously and 2 hourly maternal and fetal blood samples taken during 24 h experiments between 120 and 138 days gestation. 3. Plasma melatonin concentrations were higher during the hours of darkness in the ewes and fetuses in both the normal and altered groups; i.e. altering the time of darkness was associated with a shift in the timing of the daily increase in melatonin concentrations in the mother and fetus. 4. In the fetuses, the mean 24 h plasma prolactin concentration was higher in the altered lighting group (28.8 +/- 6.1 micrograms/l) compared to the normal lighting group (13.0 +/- 3.9 micrograms/l). There was no difference, however, between groups in the daily variation of fetal plasma prolactin concentrations, which were higher at 17.00-01.00 h than at 05.00-19.00 h. Thus, altering the time of darkness did not change the timing of the daily plasma prolactin rhythm in the fetus. 5. Under the normal lighting regime maternal plasma prolactin concentrations were higher at 17.00-19.00 h (i.e. from 2 h before lights off) than at 09.00-11.00 h. In contrast, under altered lighting, plasma prolactin concentrations were higher at 01.00-07.00 h (i.e. 2-8 h after lights on) than at 09.00 h. 6. In the normal lighting group the incidence (min/h) of FBMs were highest at 16.00-21.00 h and reached a minimum at 05.00-06.00 h. In contrast, in the altered lighting group the incidence of FBMs was lowest at 19.00-20.00 h and reached a maximum at 11.00-12.00 h. 7. The results suggest that the light-dark cycle influences the diurnal modulation of FBMs, but not the daily variation of fetal plasma prolactin concentrations. The role of plasma melatonin concentrations, and evidence for a photo-inducible phase of increased prolactin secretion in the fetus, is discussed.

Identification of a seasonal elevation in daytime melatonin levels associated with the rut in fallow bucks (Dama dama): the effect of day length and exogenous melatonin

The timing of the seasonal reduction in voluntary food intake and hormonal changes associated with the rut were investigated in mature fallow bucks subjected to artificial long-day exposure with and without superimposed melatonin-releasing implants. Circulating testosterone profiles and the period of inappetence, signalling the onset of the period of reproductive activity in untreated bucks under natural photoperiod, were phase-advanced in both treatment groups. In the long-day treated group, these profiles were phase-advanced by 1 week, while in the long-day + melatonin group, the phase advance was 6 weeks compared to the controls. Circulating daytime melatonin, elevated in all three groups, corresponds with seasonal changes in circulating testosterone levels associated with the rut. Prolactin profiles followed ambient photoperiod, being high during natural or artificial long days and low during natural short days. Exogenous melatonin administered during long-day exposure initiated a rapid and reversible decrease in circulating prolactin levels. The elevation in plasma melatonin could not be separated temporally from the seasonal testosterone peak by exposure to long days or to exogenous melatonin. However, this daytime melatonin profile was abolished by the ablation of circulating testosterone following immunization against luteinizing hormone releasing hormone (LHRH). The presence of this endogenous melatonin during daylight was observed only during the rut, as measured in two radioimmunoassays and confirmed by mass spectrometry. It is likely that both testosterone and melatonin influence the onset of the seasonal rut in fallow bucks.

A daily prolactin rhythm persists in the ewe, foetus and newborn lamb after maternal pinealectomy in late gestation

Abstract We have investigated the effect of maternal pinealectomy between 104 and 120 days gestation on the daily rhythm in plasma prolactin concentrations in the ewe, foetus and newborn lamb. There was a 24 h prolactin rhythm present in both the intact (n = 4) and pinealectomized (n = 4) ewes. Plasma prolactin concentrations were highest at 2100 h (i.e. 2 h after lights off) and a daily prolactin rhythm was present until at least 24 h before delivery. The mean 24 h foetal plasma concentration of prolactin was significantly higher (P<0.001) in the pinealectomized (35.3 + 1.9 mug/1) than in the intact group (6.9 +/- 0.6 mug/1). There was a significant 24 h rhythm in foetal prolactin concentrations and the timing of the daily peak (2100 h) was the same in the foetuses of intact and pinealectomized ewes. During the first 10 weeks after birth there was a significant effect of time of day on prolactin concentrations but the 24 h prolactin profile was significantly different in the lambs delivered to pinealectomized ewes than in the lambs delivered to intact ewes. In the lambs delivered after maternal pinealectomy, plasma prolactin concentrations were higher between 1900 and 2300 h than between 0700 and 1100 h, whereas in lambs delivered to intact ewes, prolactin concentrations were higher at 0100 h than between 1500 and 1700 h. We conclude that the ontogenesis of the daily rhythm in foetal and newborn lamb plasma prolactin concentrations is not dependent on a daily melatonin signal from the ewe.

Effects of prolonged artificial photoperiod on circulating prolactin and melatonin levels in seasonal ewes

Crossbred ewes exposed to long days for 46 months prior to photoperiod reversal showed no alteration in the duration or amplitude of the circulating melatonin peak between 24 and 46 months of continuous long day exposure. By 3 months after photoreversal to short days, both the amplitude and duration of the peak had adapted to the new scotophase. In short day treated ewes, the melatonin peak was abolished by 46 but not 24 months of short day exposure, and was not fully restored in all ewes 3 months after photoreversal. Mean prolactin levels over 24 h remained high up to 46 months of long day treatment, and declined 3 months after short day exposure. Conversely, mean prolactin levels remained low up to 46 months of short day treatment, increasing 3 months after exposure to long days. Thus: (i) depletion of the melatonin-synthesizing capability of the ovine pineal gland by prolonged exposure to long nights is not completely reversed after 3 months of continuous long day exposure, and (ii) a nocturnal melatonin peak is not essential for maintenance of plasma prolactin levels under these conditions.