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Liu X, Gygi SP, Paulo JA. Isobaric Tag-Based Protein Profiling across Eight Human Cell Lines Using High-Field Asymmetric Ion Mobility Spectrometry and Real-Time Database Searching. Proteomics 2020; 21:e2000218. [PMID: 33015980 DOI: 10.1002/pmic.202000218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2020] [Revised: 09/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
A vast number of human cell lines are available for cell culture model-based studies, and as such the potential exists for discrepancies in findings due to cell line selection. To investigate this concept, the authors determine the relative protein abundance profiles of a panel of eight diverse, but commonly studied human cell lines. This panel includes HAP1, HEK293T, HeLa, HepG2, Jurkat, Panc1, SH-SY5Y, and SVGp12. A mass spectrometry-based proteomics workflow designed to enhance quantitative accuracy while maintaining analytical depth is used. To this end, this strategy leverages TMTpro16-based sample multiplexing, high-field asymmetric ion mobility spectrometry, and real-time database searching. The data show that the differences in the relative protein abundance profiles reflect cell line diversity. The authors also determine several hundred proteins to be highly enriched for a given cell line, and perform gene ontology and pathway analysis on these cell line-enriched proteins. An R Shiny application is designed to query protein abundance profiles and retrieve proteins with similar patterns. The workflows used herein can be applied to additional cell lines to aid cell line selection for addressing a given scientific inquiry or for improving an experimental design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinyue Liu
- Department of Cell Biology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Steven P Gygi
- Department of Cell Biology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Joao A Paulo
- Department of Cell Biology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
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2
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Integrated Multi-Assay Culture Model for Stem Cell Chondrogenic Differentiation. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20040951. [PMID: 30813231 PMCID: PMC6413173 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20040951] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2019] [Revised: 02/15/2019] [Accepted: 02/17/2019] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent osteochondral repair strategies highlight the promise of mesenchymal progenitors, an accessible stem cell source with osteogenic and chondrogenic potential, used in conjunction with biomaterials for tissue engineering. For this, regenerative medicine approaches require robust models to ensure selected cell populations can generate the desired cell type in a reproducible and measurable manner. Techniques for in vitro chondrogenic differentiation are well-established but largely qualitative, relying on sample staining and imaging. To facilitate the in vitro screening of pro-chondrogenic treatments, a 3D micropellet culture combined with three quantitative GAG assays has been developed, with a fourth parallel assay measuring sample content to enable normalisation. The effect of transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) used to validate this culture format produced a measurable increase in proteoglycan production in the parallel assays, in both 2D and 3D culture configurations. When compared to traditional micropellets, the monolayer format appeared less able to detect changes in cell differentiation, however in-well 3D cultures displayed a significant differential response. Effects on collagen 2 expression confirmed these observations. Based on these results, a microplate format was optimised for 3D culture, in a high-throughput in-well configuration. This model showed improved sensitivity and confirmed the 3D micropellet in-well quantitative assays as an effective differentiation format compatible with streamlined, high-throughput chondrogenic screens.
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Harrison RP, Chauhan VM, Onion D, Aylott JW, Sottile V. Intracellular processing of silica-coated superparamagnetic iron nanoparticles in human mesenchymal stem cells. RSC Adv 2019; 9:3176-3184. [PMID: 30774937 PMCID: PMC6350623 DOI: 10.1039/c8ra09089k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2018] [Accepted: 12/21/2018] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Silica-coated superparamagnetic iron nanoparticles (SiMAGs) are an exciting biomedical technology capable of targeted delivery of cell-based therapeutics and disease diagnosis. However, in order to realise their full clinical potential, their intracellular fate must be determined. The analytical techniques of super-resolution fluorescence microscopy, particle counting flow cytometry and pH-sensitive nanosensors were applied to elucidate mechanisms of intracellular SiMAG processing in human mesenchymal stem cell (hMSCs). Super-resolution microscopy showed SiMAG fluorescently-tagged nanoparticles are endocytosed and co-localised within lysosomes. When exposed to simulated lysosomal conditions SiMAGs were solubilised and exhibited diminishing fluorescence emission over 7 days. The in vitro intracellular metabolism of SiMAGs was monitored in hMSCs using flow cytometry and co-localised pH-sensitive nanosensors. A decrease in SiMAG fluorescence emission, which corresponded to a decrease in lysosomal pH was observed, mirroring ex vivo observations, suggesting SiMAG lysosomal exposure degrades fluorescent silica-coatings and iron cores. These findings indicate although there is a significant decrease in intracellular SiMAG loading, sufficient particles remain internalised (>50%) to render SiMAG treated cells amenable to long-term magnetic cell manipulation. Our analytical approach provides important insights into the understanding of the intracellular fate of SiMAG processing, which could be readily applied to other particle therapeutics, to advance their clinical translation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard P Harrison
- Wolfson Centre for Stem Cells, Tissue Engineering and Modelling (STEM), School of Medicine, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK. .,Centre for Biological Engineering, Loughborough University, Leicestershire LE11 3TU, UK
| | - Veeren M Chauhan
- School of Pharmacy, University of Nottingham, Boots Sciences Building, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK. ;
| | - David Onion
- University of Nottingham Flow Cytometry Facility, School of Life Sciences, University of Nottingham, NG7 2UH, UK
| | - Jonathan W Aylott
- School of Pharmacy, University of Nottingham, Boots Sciences Building, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK. ;
| | - Virginie Sottile
- Wolfson Centre for Stem Cells, Tissue Engineering and Modelling (STEM), School of Medicine, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK.
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Hossain KMZ, Patel U, Kennedy AR, Macri-Pellizzeri L, Sottile V, Grant DM, Scammell BE, Ahmed I. Porous calcium phosphate glass microspheres for orthobiologic applications. Acta Biomater 2018; 72:396-406. [PMID: 29604438 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2018.03.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2018] [Revised: 03/07/2018] [Accepted: 03/22/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Orthobiologics is a rapidly advancing field utilising cell-based therapies and biomaterials to enable the body to repair and regenerate musculoskeletal tissues. This paper reports on a cost-effective flame spheroidisation process for production of novel porous glass microspheres from calcium phosphate-based glasses to encapsulate and deliver stem cells. Careful selection of the glass and pore-forming agent, along with a manufacturing method with the required processing window enabled the production of porous glass microspheres via a single-stage manufacturing process. The morphological and physical characterisation revealed porous microspheres with tailored surface and interconnected porosity (up to 76 ± 5%) with average pore size of 55 ± 8 µm and surface areas ranging from 0.34 to 0.9 m2 g-1. Furthermore, simple alteration of the processing parameters produced microspheres with alternate unique morphologies, such as with solid cores and surface porosity only. The tuneable porosity enabled control over their surface area, degradation profiles and hence ion release rates. Furthermore, cytocompatibility of the microspheres was assessed using human mesenchymal stem cells via direct cell culture experiments and analysis confirmed that they had migrated to within the centre of the microspheres. The novel microspheres developed have huge potential for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine applications. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE This manuscript highlights a simple cost-effective one-step process for manufacturing porous calcium phosphate-based glass microspheres with varying control over surface pores and fully interconnected porosity via a flame spheroidisation process. Moreover, a simple alteration of the processing parameters can produce microspheres which have a solid core with surface pores only. The tuneable porosity enabled control over their surface area, degradation profiles and hence ion release rates. The paper also shows that stem cells not only attach and proliferate but more importantly migrate to within the core of the porous microspheres, highlighting applications for bone tissue engineering and regenerative medicine.
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Macri-Pellizzeri L, De Melo N, Ahmed I, Grant D, Scammell B, Sottile V. Live Quantitative Monitoring of Mineral Deposition in Stem Cells Using Tetracycline Hydrochloride. Tissue Eng Part C Methods 2018; 24:171-178. [PMID: 29353532 PMCID: PMC5865259 DOI: 10.1089/ten.tec.2017.0400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The final stage of in vitro osteogenic differentiation is characterized by the production of mineral deposits containing calcium cations and inorganic phosphates, which populate the extracellular matrix (ECM) surrounding the cell monolayer. Conventional histological techniques for the assessment of mineralization, such as Von Kossa and Alizarin Red S staining, are end point techniques requiring cell fixation. Moreover, in both cases staining quantitation requires dye extraction, which irreversibly alters the ECM conformation and structure, therefore preventing the use of the sample for further analysis. In this study, the use of tetracycline hydrochloride (TC) is proposed for the nondestructive staining, quantitation, and imaging of mineralizing bone-like nodules in live cultures of human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells cultured under osteogenic conditions. Overnight administration of TC to living cells was shown not to alter the metabolic activity or the progression of cell differentiation. When applied to differentiating cultures, cell exposure to serial doses of TC was found to produce quantifiable fluorescence emission specifically in osteogenic cultures. Incubation with TC enabled fluorescence imaging of mineralized areas in live cultures and the combination with other fluorophores using appropriate filters. These results demonstrate that serial TC administration over the differentiation time course provides a qualitative and quantitative tool for the monitoring and evaluation of the differentiation process in live cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Macri-Pellizzeri
- 1 Wolfson STEM Centre, Division of Cancer and Stem Cells, School of Medicine, The University of Nottingham , Nottingham, United Kingdom .,2 Advanced Materials Group, Department of Mechanical, Materials and Manufacturing Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, The University of Nottingham , Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | - Nigel De Melo
- 1 Wolfson STEM Centre, Division of Cancer and Stem Cells, School of Medicine, The University of Nottingham , Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | - Ifty Ahmed
- 2 Advanced Materials Group, Department of Mechanical, Materials and Manufacturing Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, The University of Nottingham , Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | - David Grant
- 2 Advanced Materials Group, Department of Mechanical, Materials and Manufacturing Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, The University of Nottingham , Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | - Brigitte Scammell
- 3 Orthopaedics and Trauma Group, Division of Rheumatology, Orthopaedics, and Dermatology, School of Medicine, The University of Nottingham , Nottingham, United Kingdom
| | - Virginie Sottile
- 1 Wolfson STEM Centre, Division of Cancer and Stem Cells, School of Medicine, The University of Nottingham , Nottingham, United Kingdom
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Gupta D, Grant DM, Zakir Hossain KM, Ahmed I, Sottile V. Role of geometrical cues in bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cell survival, growth and osteogenic differentiation. J Biomater Appl 2017; 32:906-919. [DOI: 10.1177/0885328217745699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Dhanak Gupta
- Wolfson Centre for Stem Cells, Tissue Engineering and Modelling (STEM), School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
- Advanced Materials Research Group, Faculty of Engineering, University of Nottingham, UK
| | - David M Grant
- Advanced Materials Research Group, Faculty of Engineering, University of Nottingham, UK
| | - Kazi M Zakir Hossain
- Advanced Materials Research Group, Faculty of Engineering, University of Nottingham, UK
| | - Ifty Ahmed
- Advanced Materials Research Group, Faculty of Engineering, University of Nottingham, UK
| | - Virginie Sottile
- Wolfson Centre for Stem Cells, Tissue Engineering and Modelling (STEM), School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
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Tanikake Y, Akahane M, Furukawa A, Tohma Y, Inagaki Y, Kira T, Tanaka Y. Calcium Concentration in Culture Medium as a Nondestructive and Rapid Marker of Osteogenesis. Cell Transplant 2016; 26:1067-1076. [PMID: 27983908 DOI: 10.3727/096368916x694166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Artificial bones made of β-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP) combined with bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stromal cells (BM-MSCs) are used for effective reconstruction of bone defects caused by genetic defects, traumatic injury, or surgical resection of bone tumors. However, the selection of constructs with high osteogenic potential before implantation is challenging. The purpose of this study was to determine whether the calcium concentration in BM-MSC culture medium can be used as a nondestructive and simple osteogenic marker for selecting tissue-engineered grafts constructed using β-TCP and BM-MSCs. We prepared three cell passages of BM-MSCs derived from three 7-week-old, male Fischer 344 rats; the cells were cultured in osteoinductive medium in the presence of β-TCP for 15 days. The medium was replaced with fresh medium on day 1 in culture and subsequently changed every 48 h; it was collected for measurement of osteocalcin secretion and calcium concentration by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, respectively. After cultivation, the constructs were implanted subcutaneously into the backs of recipient rats. Four weeks after implantation, the alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity and osteocalcin content of the constructs were measured. A strong inverse correlation was observed between the calcium concentration in the medium and the ALP activity and osteocalcin content of the constructs, with Pearson's correlation coefficients of 0.92 and 0.90, respectively. These results indicate that tissue-engineered bone with high osteogenic ability can be selected before implantation based on low calcium content of the culture medium, resulting in successful bone formation after implantation. This nondestructive, simple method shows great promise for assessing the osteogenic ability of tissue-engineered bone.
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Hoffmann A, Floerkemeier T, Melzer C, Hass R. Comparison of in vitro-cultivation of human mesenchymal stroma/stem cells derived from bone marrow and umbilical cord. J Tissue Eng Regen Med 2016; 11:2565-2581. [PMID: 27125777 DOI: 10.1002/term.2153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2015] [Revised: 12/15/2015] [Accepted: 01/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Cell-mediated therapy is currently considered as a novel approach for many human diseases. Potential uses range from topic applications with the regeneration of confined tissue areas to systemic applications. Stem cells including mesenchymal stroma/stem cells (MSCs) represent a highly attractive option. Their potential to cure or alleviate human diseases is investigated in a number of clinical trials. A wide variety of methods has been established in the past years for isolation, cultivation and characterization of human MSCs as expansion is presently deemed a prerequisite for clinical application with high numbers of cells carrying reproducible properties. MSCs have been retrieved from various tissues and used in a multitude of settings whereby numerous experimental protocols are available for expansion of MSCs in vitro. Accordingly, different isolation, culture and upscaling techniques contribute to the heterogeneity of MSC characteristics and the, sometimes, controversial results. Therefore, this review discusses and summarizes certain experimental conditions for MSC in vitro culture focusing on adult bone marrow-derived and neonatal umbilical cord-derived MSCs in order to enhance our understanding for MSC tissue sources and to stratify different procedures. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Hoffmann
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, OE 8893, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Thilo Floerkemeier
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery (Annastift), OE 6270, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Catharina Melzer
- Biochemistry and Tumour Biology Laboratory, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, OE 6411, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Ralf Hass
- Biochemistry and Tumour Biology Laboratory, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, OE 6411, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
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Sidney LE, Kirkham GR, Buttery LD. Comparison of osteogenic differentiation of embryonic stem cells and primary osteoblasts revealed by responses to IL-1β, TNF-α, and IFN-γ. Stem Cells Dev 2014; 23:605-17. [PMID: 24192281 DOI: 10.1089/scd.2013.0336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
There are well-established approaches for osteogenic differentiation of embryonic stem cells (ESCs), but few show direct comparison with primary osteoblasts or demonstrate differences in response to external factors. Here, we show comparative analysis of in vitro osteogenic differentiation of mouse ESC (osteo-mESC) and mouse primary osteoblasts. Both cell types formed mineralized bone nodules and produced osteogenic extracellular matrix, based on immunostaining for osteopontin and osteocalcin. However, there were marked differences in the morphology of osteo-mESCs and levels of mRNA expression for osteogenic genes. In response to the addition of proinflammatory cytokines interleukin-1β, tumor necrosis factor-α, and interferon-γ to the culture medium, primary osteoblasts showed increased production of nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) at early time points and decreases in cell viability. In contrast, osteo-mESCs maintained viability and did not produce NO and PGE2 until day 21. The formation of bone nodules by primary osteoblasts was reduced markedly after cytokine stimulation but was unaffected in osteo-mESCs. Cell sorting of osteo-mESCs by cadherin-11 (cad-11) showed clear osteogenesis of cad-11(+) cells compared to unsorted osteo-mESCs and cad-11(-) cells. Moreover, the cad-11(+) cells showed a significant response to cytokines, similar to primary osteoblasts. Overall, these results show that while osteo-mESC cultures, without specific cell sorting, show characteristics of osteoblasts, there are also marked differences, notably in their responses to cytokine stimuli. These findings are relevant to understanding the differentiation of stem cells and especially developing in vitro models of disease, testing new drugs, and developing cell therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura E Sidney
- Division of Drug Delivery and Tissue Engineering, School of Pharmacy, Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, University of Nottingham , Nottingham, United Kingdom
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10
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Ghita A, Pascut FC, Sottile V, Notingher I. Monitoring the mineralisation of bone nodules in vitro by space- and time-resolved Raman micro-spectroscopy. Analyst 2014; 139:55-8. [DOI: 10.1039/c3an01716h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Dual differentiation-exogenous mesenchymal stem cell therapy for traumatic spinal cord injury repair in a murine hemisection model. Stem Cells Int 2013; 2013:928982. [PMID: 24027587 PMCID: PMC3762188 DOI: 10.1155/2013/928982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2013] [Revised: 07/10/2013] [Accepted: 07/24/2013] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) transplantation has shown tremendous promise as a therapy for repair of various tissues of the musculoskeletal, vascular, and central nervous systems. Based on this success, recent research in this field has focused on complex tissue damage, such as that which occurs from traumatic spinal cord injury (TSCI). As the critical event for successful exogenous, MSC therapy is their migration to the injury site, which allows for their anti-inflammatory and morphogenic effects on fracture healing, neuronal regeneration, and functional recover. Thus, there is a need for a cost-effective in vivo model that can faithfully recapitulate the salient features of the injury, therapy, and recovery. To address this, we review the recent advances in exogenous MSC therapy for TSCI and traumatic vertebral fracture repair and the existing challenges regarding their translational applications. We also describe a novel murine model designed to take advantage of multidisciplinary collaborations between musculoskeletal and neuroscience researchers, which is needed to establish an efficacious MSC therapy for TSCI.
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Song H, Wang Q, Wen J, Liu S, Gao X, Cheng J, Zhang D. ACVR1, a therapeutic target of fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva, is negatively regulated by miR-148a. Int J Mol Sci 2012; 13:2063-2077. [PMID: 22408438 PMCID: PMC3292007 DOI: 10.3390/ijms13022063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2011] [Revised: 02/03/2012] [Accepted: 02/07/2012] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva (FOP) is a rare congenital disorder of skeletal malformations and progressive extraskeletal ossification. There is still no effective treatment for FOP. All FOP individuals harbor conserved point mutations in ACVR1 gene that are thought to cause ACVR1 constitutive activation and activate BMP signal pathway. The constitutively active ACVR1 is also found to be able to cause endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EndMT) in endothelial cells, which may cause the formation of FOP lesions. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) play an essential role in regulating cell differentiation. Here, we verified that miR-148a directly targeted the 3' UTR of ACVR1 mRNA by reporter gene assays and mutational analysis at the miRNA binding sites, and inhibited ACVR1 both at the protein level and mRNA level. Further, we verified that miR-148a could inhibit the mRNA expression of the Inhibitor of DNA binding (Id) gene family thereby suppressing the BMP signaling pathway. This study suggests miR-148a is an important mediator of ACVR1, thus offering a new potential target for the development of therapeutic agents against FOP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Song
- Institute of Infectious Diseases, Beijing Ditan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100015, China; E-Mails: (H.S.); (Q.W.); (S.L.); (X.G.)
- Research Laboratory of Virology, Immunology & Bioinformatics, Northwest A & F University, Xianyang 712100, Shaanxi, China; E-Mail:
| | - Qi Wang
- Institute of Infectious Diseases, Beijing Ditan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100015, China; E-Mails: (H.S.); (Q.W.); (S.L.); (X.G.)
| | - Junge Wen
- Research Laboratory of Virology, Immunology & Bioinformatics, Northwest A & F University, Xianyang 712100, Shaanxi, China; E-Mail:
| | - Shunai Liu
- Institute of Infectious Diseases, Beijing Ditan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100015, China; E-Mails: (H.S.); (Q.W.); (S.L.); (X.G.)
| | - Xuesong Gao
- Institute of Infectious Diseases, Beijing Ditan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100015, China; E-Mails: (H.S.); (Q.W.); (S.L.); (X.G.)
| | - Jun Cheng
- Institute of Infectious Diseases, Beijing Ditan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100015, China; E-Mails: (H.S.); (Q.W.); (S.L.); (X.G.)
| | - Deli Zhang
- Research Laboratory of Virology, Immunology & Bioinformatics, Northwest A & F University, Xianyang 712100, Shaanxi, China; E-Mail:
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