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Chu D, Lei L, Gu S, Liu F, Wu F. Dual-specificity tyrosine phosphorylation-regulated kinase 1A promotes the inclusion of amyloid precursor protein exon 7. Biochem Pharmacol 2024; 224:116233. [PMID: 38663682 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2024.116233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2024] [Revised: 03/27/2024] [Accepted: 04/22/2024] [Indexed: 04/29/2024]
Abstract
Extracellular amyloid plaques made of Amyloid-β (Aβ) derived from amyloid precursor protein (APP) is one of the major neuropathological hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease (AD). There are three major isoforms of APP, APP770, APP751, and APP695 generated by alternative splicing of exons 7 and 8. Exon 7 encodes the Kunitz protease inhibitor (KPI) domain. Its inclusion generates APP isoforms containing KPI, APPKPI+, which is elevated in AD and Down syndrome (DS) brains and associated with increased Aβ deposition. Dual-specificity tyrosine phosphorylation-regulated kinase 1A (Dyrk1A) phosphorylates many splicing factors and regulates the alternative splicing of pre-mRNA. It is upregulated in DS and AD brain. However, it is not yet clear whether Dyrk1A could regulate APP alternative splicing. In the present study, we overexpressed or knocked down Dyrk1A in cultured cells and observed that Dyrk1A promoted the inclusion of both APP exons 7 and 8. Moreover, a significant increase in APP exon7 inclusion was also detected in the forebrain and hippocampus of human Dyrk1A transgenic mice - Tg/Dyrk1A. Screening for splicing factors regulated by Dyrk1A revealed that serine/arginine-rich protein 9G8 inhibited APP exon7 inclusion and interacted with APP pre-mRNA. In vitro, expression of exon 7 facilitated APP cleavage. In human Dyrk1A transgenic mice, we also found an increase in Aβ production. These findings suggest that Dyrk1A inhibits the splicing factor 9G8 and promotes APP exon 7 inclusion, leading to more APPKPI+ expression and APP cleavage and potentially contributing to Aβ production in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dandan Chu
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Nantong University, Nantong 226001, China; Department of Neurochemistry, Inge Grundke-Iqbal Research Floor, New York State Institute for Basic Research in Developmental Disabilities, Staten Island, NY 10314, USA; Key Laboratory of Neuroregeneration of Jiangsu and Ministry of Education, NMPA Key Laboratory for Research and Evaluation of Tissue Engineering Technology Products, Co-Innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong 226001, China
| | - Leyi Lei
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Nantong University, Nantong 226001, China
| | - Shu Gu
- Nantong No.1 High School of Jiangsu Province, Nantong 226300, China
| | - Fei Liu
- Department of Neurochemistry, Inge Grundke-Iqbal Research Floor, New York State Institute for Basic Research in Developmental Disabilities, Staten Island, NY 10314, USA.
| | - Feng Wu
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Nantong University, Nantong 226001, China; Department of Neurochemistry, Inge Grundke-Iqbal Research Floor, New York State Institute for Basic Research in Developmental Disabilities, Staten Island, NY 10314, USA.
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2
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Nikom D, Zheng S. Alternative splicing in neurodegenerative disease and the promise of RNA therapies. Nat Rev Neurosci 2023; 24:457-473. [PMID: 37336982 DOI: 10.1038/s41583-023-00717-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/02/2023] [Indexed: 06/21/2023]
Abstract
Alternative splicing generates a myriad of RNA products and protein isoforms of different functions from a single gene. Dysregulated alternative splicing has emerged as a new mechanism broadly implicated in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, frontotemporal dementia, Parkinson disease and repeat expansion diseases. Understanding the mechanisms and functional outcomes of abnormal splicing in neurological disorders is vital in developing effective therapies to treat mis-splicing pathology. In this Review, we discuss emerging research and evidence of the roles of alternative splicing defects in major neurodegenerative diseases and summarize the latest advances in RNA-based therapeutic strategies to target these disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Nikom
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA
- Center for RNA Biology and Medicine, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA
| | - Sika Zheng
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA.
- Center for RNA Biology and Medicine, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA.
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA.
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3
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Russo M, Santilli M, De Rosa MA, Calisi D, Dono F, Mattoli MV, Bonanni L, Onofrj M, Sensi SL. A Young Man with Cognitive Impairment and a Heart Condition. J Alzheimers Dis 2022; 89:405-410. [DOI: 10.3233/jad-220528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
A 43-year-old came to our observation for progressive cognitive impairment, confirmed by the neuropsychological evaluation. A diagnosis of multidomain amnestic mild cognitive impairment, due to unknown reasons, was posited at the first assessment. The patient’s neurological exam was otherwise completely normal. The patient’s mother was clinically diagnosed with frontotemporal dementia in her forties. The patient underwent neuroimaging investigations and cerebrospinal fluid analysis. Our diagnostic work-up pointed toward a neurodegenerative etiology, but the presence of concurrent cardiomyopathy emerged in the meantime. Due to the patient’s family history, a thorough genetic screening was performed. The results revealed a unique genetic asset, with heterozygotic variants of three amyloid-related genes (PSEN1, APP, and MYBPC3). PSEN1 and MYBPC3 mutations showed distinct pathogenic features and accounted for the patient’s brain and cardiac amyloidosis, whereas the APP variant was of uncertain pathological implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirella Russo
- Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, “G. d’Annunzio” University of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy
- CAST –Center for Advanced Studies and Technology, “G. d’Annunzio” University of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy
| | - Matteo Santilli
- Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, “G. d’Annunzio” University of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy
- CAST –Center for Advanced Studies and Technology, “G. d’Annunzio” University of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy
| | - Matteo A. De Rosa
- Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, “G. d’Annunzio” University of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy
- CAST –Center for Advanced Studies and Technology, “G. d’Annunzio” University of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy
| | - Dario Calisi
- Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, “G. d’Annunzio” University of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy
- CAST –Center for Advanced Studies and Technology, “G. d’Annunzio” University of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy
| | - Fedele Dono
- Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, “G. d’Annunzio” University of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy
- CAST –Center for Advanced Studies and Technology, “G. d’Annunzio” University of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy
| | - Maria Vittoria Mattoli
- Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, “G. d’Annunzio” University of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy
- Nuclear Medicine Unit, Ospedale Santo Spirito, Pescara, Italy
| | - Laura Bonanni
- Department of Medicine and Aging Sciences, “G. d’Annunzio” University of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy
| | - Marco Onofrj
- Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, “G. d’Annunzio” University of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy
- CAST –Center for Advanced Studies and Technology, “G. d’Annunzio” University of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy
| | - Stefano L. Sensi
- Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, “G. d’Annunzio” University of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy
- CAST –Center for Advanced Studies and Technology, “G. d’Annunzio” University of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy
- ITAB –Institute for Advanced Biomedical Technologies, “G. d’Annunzio” University of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy
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4
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Molecular Characterization of Kunitz-Type Protease Inhibitors from Blister Beetles (Coleoptera, Meloidae). Biomolecules 2022; 12:biom12070988. [PMID: 35883544 PMCID: PMC9312475 DOI: 10.3390/biom12070988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2022] [Revised: 07/07/2022] [Accepted: 07/12/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Protease inhibitors are widely studied since the unrestricted activity of proteases can cause extensive organ lesions. In particular, elastase activity is involved in the pathophysiology of acute lung injury, for example during SARS-CoV-2 infection, while serine proteases and thrombin-like proteases are involved in the development and/or pathology of the nervous system. Natural protease inhibitors have the advantage to be reversible and with few side effects and thus are increasingly considered as new drugs. Kunitz-type protease inhibitors (KTPIs), reported in the venom of various organisms, such as wasps, spiders, scorpions, and snakes, have been studied for their potent anticoagulant activity and widespread protease inhibitor activity. Putative KTPI anticoagulants have been identified in transcriptomic resources obtained for two blister beetle species, Lydus trimaculatus and Mylabris variabilis. The KTPIs of L. trimaculatus and M. variabilis were characterized by combined transcriptomic and bioinformatics methodologies. The full-length mRNA sequences were divided on the base of the sequence of the active sites of the putative proteins. In silico protein structure analyses of each group of translational products show the biochemical features of the active sites and the potential protease targets. Validation of these genes is the first step for considering these molecules as new drugs for use in medicine.
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Mishra M. Evolutionary Aspects of the Structural Convergence and Functional Diversification of Kunitz-Domain Inhibitors. J Mol Evol 2020; 88:537-548. [PMID: 32696206 DOI: 10.1007/s00239-020-09959-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2019] [Accepted: 07/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Kunitz-type domains are ubiquitously found in natural systems as serine protease inhibitors or animal toxins in venomous animals. Kunitz motif is a cysteine-rich peptide chain of ~ 60 amino acid residues with alpha and beta fold, stabilized by three conserved disulfide bridges. An extensive dataset of amino acid variations is found on sequence analysis of various Kunitz peptides. Kunitz peptides show diverse biological activities like inhibition of proteases of other classes and/or adopting a new function of blocking or modulating the ion channels. Based on the amino acid residues at the functional site of various Kunitz-type inhibitors, it is inferred that this 'flexibility within the structural rigidity' is responsible for multiple biological activities. Accelerated evolution of functional sites in response to the co-evolving molecular targets of the hosts of venomous animals or parasites, gene sharing, and gene duplication have been discussed as the most likely mechanisms responsible for the functional heterogeneity of Kunitz-domain inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manasi Mishra
- Department of Life Sciences, School of Natural Sciences, Shiv Nadar University, Gautam Buddha Nagar, Uttar Pradesh, 201314, India.
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Identification of Arenin, a Novel Kunitz-Like Polypeptide from the Skin Secretions of Dryophytes arenicolor. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:ijms19113644. [PMID: 30463246 PMCID: PMC6274936 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19113644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2018] [Revised: 11/16/2018] [Accepted: 11/17/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Amphibian skin secretions are enriched with complex cocktails of bioactive molecules such as proteins, peptides, biogenic amines, alkaloids guanidine derivatives, steroids and other minor components spanning a wide spectrum of pharmacological actions exploited for centuries in folk medicine. This study presents evidence on the protein profile of the skin secretions of the canyon tree frog, Dryophytes arenicolor. At the same time, it presents the reverse-phase liquid chromatography isolation, mass spectrometry characterization and identification at mRNA level of a novel 58 amino acids Kunitz-like polypeptide from the skin secretions of Dryophytes arenicolor, arenin. Cell viability assays performed on HDFa, CaCo2 and MCF7 cells cultured with different concentrations of arenin showed a discrete effect at low concentrations (2, 4, 8 and 16 µg/mL) suggesting a multi-target interaction in a hormetic-like dose-response. Further work is required to investigate the mechanisms underlying the variable effect on cell viability produced by different concentrations of arenin.
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Decock M, Stanga S, Octave JN, Dewachter I, Smith SO, Constantinescu SN, Kienlen-Campard P. Glycines from the APP GXXXG/GXXXA Transmembrane Motifs Promote Formation of Pathogenic Aβ Oligomers in Cells. Front Aging Neurosci 2016; 8:107. [PMID: 27242518 PMCID: PMC4861705 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2016.00107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2016] [Accepted: 04/25/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disorder characterized by progressive cognitive decline leading to dementia. The amyloid precursor protein (APP) is a ubiquitous type I transmembrane (TM) protein sequentially processed to generate the β-amyloid peptide (Aβ), the major constituent of senile plaques that are typical AD lesions. There is a growing body of evidence that soluble Aβ oligomers correlate with clinical symptoms associated with the disease. The Aβ sequence begins in the extracellular juxtamembrane region of APP and includes roughly half of the TM domain. This region contains GXXXG and GXXXA motifs, which are critical for both TM protein interactions and fibrillogenic properties of peptides derived from TM α-helices. Glycine-to-leucine mutations of these motifs were previously shown to affect APP processing and Aβ production in cells. However, the detailed contribution of these motifs to APP dimerization, their relation to processing, and the conformational changes they can induce within Aβ species remains undefined. Here, we describe highly resistant Aβ42 oligomers that are produced in cellular membrane compartments. They are formed in cells by processing of the APP amyloidogenic C-terminal fragment (C99), or by direct expression of a peptide corresponding to Aβ42, but not to Aβ40. By a point-mutation approach, we demonstrate that glycine-to-leucine mutations in the G29XXXG33 and G38XXXA42 motifs dramatically affect the Aβ oligomerization process. G33 and G38 in these motifs are specifically involved in Aβ oligomerization; the G33L mutation strongly promotes oligomerization, while G38L blocks it with a dominant effect on G33 residue modification. Finally, we report that the secreted Aβ42 oligomers display pathological properties consistent with their suggested role in AD, but do not induce toxicity in survival assays with neuronal cells. Exposure of neurons to these Aβ42 oligomers dramatically affects neuronal differentiation and, consequently, neuronal network maturation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Decock
- CEMO-Alzheimer Dementia, Institute of Neuroscience, Université Catholique de Louvain Brussels, Belgium
| | - Serena Stanga
- CEMO-Alzheimer Dementia, Institute of Neuroscience, Université Catholique de Louvain Brussels, Belgium
| | - Jean-Noël Octave
- CEMO-Alzheimer Dementia, Institute of Neuroscience, Université Catholique de Louvain Brussels, Belgium
| | - Ilse Dewachter
- CEMO-Alzheimer Dementia, Institute of Neuroscience, Université Catholique de Louvain Brussels, Belgium
| | - Steven O Smith
- Department of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook NY, USA
| | - Stefan N Constantinescu
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research - de Duve Institute, Université Catholique de Louvain Brussels, Belgium
| | - Pascal Kienlen-Campard
- CEMO-Alzheimer Dementia, Institute of Neuroscience, Université Catholique de Louvain Brussels, Belgium
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Decock M, El Haylani L, Stanga S, Dewachter I, Octave JN, Smith SO, Constantinescu SN, Kienlen-Campard P. Analysis by a highly sensitive split luciferase assay of the regions involved in APP dimerization and its impact on processing. FEBS Open Bio 2015; 5:763-73. [PMID: 26500837 PMCID: PMC4588712 DOI: 10.1016/j.fob.2015.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2015] [Revised: 08/07/2015] [Accepted: 09/01/2015] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Amyloid precursor protein (APP) dimerizes more than its C-terminal fragments in cells. Mutations of membrane GXXXG motifs affect Aβ production but not APP dimerization. Deletion of the APP intracellular domain increases APP dimerization.
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease that causes progressive loss of cognitive functions, leading to dementia. Two types of lesions are found in AD brains: neurofibrillary tangles and senile plaques. The latter are composed mainly of the β-amyloid peptide (Aβ) generated by amyloidogenic processing of the amyloid precursor protein (APP). Several studies have suggested that dimerization of APP is closely linked to Aβ production. Nevertheless, the mechanisms controlling APP dimerization and their role in APP function are not known. Here we used a new luciferase complementation assay to analyze APP dimerization and unravel the involvement of its three major domains: the ectodomain, the transmembrane domain and the intracellular domain. Our results indicate that within cells full-length APP dimerizes more than its α and β C-terminal fragments, confirming the pivotal role of the ectodomain in this process. Dimerization of the APP transmembrane (TM) domain has been reported to regulate processing at the γ-cleavage site. We show that both non-familial and familial AD mutations in the TM GXXXG motifs strongly modulate Aβ production, but do not consistently change dimerization of the C-terminal fragments. Finally, we found for the first time that removal of intracellular domain strongly increases APP dimerization. Increased APP dimerization is linked to increased non-amyloidogenic processing.
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Key Words
- AD, Alzheimer’s disease
- AICD, APP intracellular domain
- APP
- APP, amyloid precursor protein
- Alzheimer disease
- Amyloid beta peptide
- Aβ, β-amyloid peptide
- CHO, chinese hamster ovary
- CTF, C-terminal fragment
- DAPT, N-[N-(3,5-difluorophenacetyl)-l-alanyl]-S-phenylglycine t-butyl ester
- DTT, dithiothreitol
- Dimerization
- ECL, enzymatic chemi-luminescence
- ECLIA, electro-chemiluminescence immuno-assay
- FBS, fetal bovine serum
- FRET, fluorescence resonance energy transfer
- GXXXG motifs
- KPI, Kunitz-type protease inhibitor
- NSAIDs, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
- PBS, phosphate buffered saline
- PS1/PS2, presenilin1/presenilin2
- RLU, relative light unit
- SP, signal peptide
- Split luciferase
- TM, transmembrane
- YFP, yellow fluorescent protein
- sAPPα, soluble APPα
- sAPPβ, soluble APPβ
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Decock
- Institute of Neuroscience, Université catholique de Louvain, Brussels 1200, Belgium
| | - Laetitia El Haylani
- Institute of Neuroscience, Université catholique de Louvain, Brussels 1200, Belgium
| | - Serena Stanga
- Institute of Neuroscience, Université catholique de Louvain, Brussels 1200, Belgium
| | - Ilse Dewachter
- Institute of Neuroscience, Université catholique de Louvain, Brussels 1200, Belgium
| | - Jean-Noël Octave
- Institute of Neuroscience, Université catholique de Louvain, Brussels 1200, Belgium
| | - Steven O Smith
- Department of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794-5215, USA
| | - Stefan N Constantinescu
- de Duve Institute and Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, Université catholique de Louvain, Brussels 1200, Belgium
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Nalivaeva NN, Turner AJ. The amyloid precursor protein: a biochemical enigma in brain development, function and disease. FEBS Lett 2013; 587:2046-54. [PMID: 23684647 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2013.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 170] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2013] [Revised: 05/06/2013] [Accepted: 05/06/2013] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
For 20 years the amyloid cascade hypothesis of Alzheimer disease (AD) has placed the amyloid-β peptide (Aβ), formed from the amyloid precursor protein (APP), centre stage in the process of neurodegeneration. However, no new therapeutic agents have reached the clinic through exploitation of the hypothesis. The APP metabolites, including Aβ, generated by its proteolytic processing, have distinct physiological functions. In particular, the cleaved intracellular domain of APP (AICD) regulates expression of several genes, including APP itself, the β-secretase BACE-1 and the Aβ-degrading enzyme, neprilysin and this transcriptional regulation involves direct promoter binding of AICD. Of the three major splice isoforms of APP (APP695, APP751, APP770), APP695 is the predominant neuronal form, from which Aβ and transcriptionally-active AICD are preferentially generated by selective processing through the amyloidogenic pathway. Despite intensive research, the normal functions of the APP isoforms remain an enigma. APP plays an important role in brain development, memory and synaptic plasticity and secreted forms of APP are neuroprotective. A fuller understanding of the physiological and pathological actions of APP and its metabolic and gene regulatory network could provide new therapeutic opportunities in neurodegeneration, including AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia N Nalivaeva
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK.
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Octave JN, Pierrot N, Ferao Santos S, Nalivaeva NN, Turner AJ. From synaptic spines to nuclear signaling: nuclear and synaptic actions of the amyloid precursor protein. J Neurochem 2013; 126:183-90. [DOI: 10.1111/jnc.12239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2013] [Revised: 02/25/2013] [Accepted: 02/26/2013] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Noël Octave
- Université Catholique de Louvain; Institute of Neuroscience (IoNS); Brussels Belgium
| | - Nathalie Pierrot
- Université Catholique de Louvain; Institute of Neuroscience (IoNS); Brussels Belgium
| | - Susana Ferao Santos
- Université Catholique de Louvain; Institute of Neuroscience (IoNS); Brussels Belgium
| | - Natalia N. Nalivaeva
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology; Faculty of Biological Sciences; University of Leeds; Leeds UK
- I.M. Sechenov Institute of Evolutionary Physiology and Biochemistry; RAS; St. Petersburg Russia
| | - Anthony J. Turner
- School of Molecular and Cellular Biology; Faculty of Biological Sciences; University of Leeds; Leeds UK
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