1
|
Importance of autophagy in colorectal cancer: A cross-sectional study. JOURNAL OF SURGERY AND MEDICINE 2019. [DOI: 10.28982/josam.536733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
|
2
|
Augusto TV, Correia-da-Silva G, Rodrigues CMP, Teixeira N, Amaral C. Acquired resistance to aromatase inhibitors: where we stand! Endocr Relat Cancer 2018. [PMID: 29530940 DOI: 10.1530/erc-17-0425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Aromatase inhibitors (AIs) are one of the principal therapeutic approaches for estrogen receptor-positive (ER+) breast cancer in postmenopausal women. They block estrogen biosynthesis through aromatase inhibition, thus preventing tumour progression. Besides the therapeutic success of the third-generation AIs, acquired resistance may develop, leading to tumour relapse. This resistance is thought to be the result of a change in the behaviour of ER in these breast cancer cells, presumably by PI3K/AKT pathway enhancement along with alterations in other signalling pathways. Nevertheless, biological mechanisms, such as apoptosis, autophagy, cell cycle modulation and activation of androgen receptor (AR), are also implicated in acquired resistance. Moreover, clinical evidence demonstrated that there is a lack of cross-resistance among AIs, although the reason is not fully understood. Thus, there is a demand to understand the mechanisms involved in endocrine resistance to each AI, since the search for new strategies to surpass breast cancer acquired resistance is of major concern.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tiago Vieira Augusto
- UCIBIO.REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Biochemistry, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Georgina Correia-da-Silva
- UCIBIO.REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Biochemistry, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Cecília M P Rodrigues
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Natércia Teixeira
- UCIBIO.REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Biochemistry, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Cristina Amaral
- UCIBIO.REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Biochemistry, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Karvelas G, Roumpi A, Komporozos C, Syrigos K. Everolimus as cancer therapy: Cardiotoxic or an unexpected antiatherogenic agent? A narrative review. Hellenic J Cardiol 2018; 59:196-200. [PMID: 29410175 DOI: 10.1016/j.hjc.2018.01.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2017] [Revised: 01/23/2018] [Accepted: 01/26/2018] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Everolimus (EVE) is now approved by many agencies for the treatment of variable neoplasms. The risk for adverse events with this agent is not adequately defined. The purpose of this review is to summarize the EVE-induced cardiotoxic effect as an antineoplastic factor on patients who received the specific drug and to evaluate any possible antiatherogenic effects due to systemic use of the drug. Articles were searched on PubMed until August 2017. Articles included an expanded-access clinical trial, as well as phase 2 or 3 clinical trials (most of them were randomized). Three experimental studies that provided evidence for the possible antiatherogenic action of EVE were also included. In addition, only studies that evaluated the systemic use of the drug were included. To be eligible for inclusion, trials should have evaluated patients with malignancy, treated by EVE, or assessed the antiatherogenic effect of the systemic use of EVE through clinical or experimental studies. Only articles written in English language were included. No direct cardiotoxic adverse effects (arrhythmia, acute coronary event, heart failure, and echocardiography pathologic findings) were reported. Patients appeared to have a risk of developing adverse events that could be associated with the risk factors of cardiovascular disease. In all clinical studies, patients suffered hyperglycemia, and in most of them, hyperlipidemia was observed. Fewer studies have reported the incidence of hypertension. Finally, there is evidence claiming that EVE has an antiatherogenic action. Three experimental studies have shown that the systemic use of EVE in mice or rabbits with atherosclerotic lesions led to the reduction in atheromatous plaque growth. However, we could not find any clinical study that showed similar results in patients with cancer. To sum up, the only reported cardiac adverse event of EVE treatment in patients with cancer is indirect. They are associated with the risk factors of cardiovascular disease (hyperglycemia, hyperlipidemia, and hypertension), which are mainly mild and easily manageable. Further research and data that support the antiatherogenic action of EVE are needed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Georgios Karvelas
- Oncology Unit of the 3(rd) Internal Medicine Clinic, Sotiria General Hospital, Athens Medical School, Greece
| | - Aikaterini Roumpi
- Oncology Unit of the 3(rd) Internal Medicine Clinic, Sotiria General Hospital, Athens Medical School, Greece.
| | | | - Konstantinos Syrigos
- Oncology Unit of the 3(rd) Internal Medicine Clinic, Sotiria General Hospital, Athens Medical School, Greece
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Araki K, Miyoshi Y. Mechanism of resistance to endocrine therapy in breast cancer: the important role of PI3K/Akt/mTOR in estrogen receptor-positive, HER2-negative breast cancer. Breast Cancer 2017; 25:392-401. [PMID: 29086897 DOI: 10.1007/s12282-017-0812-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2017] [Accepted: 10/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Endocrine therapy is a crucial treatment for estrogen receptor-positive (ER+) breast cancer, with proven clinical benefits. However, adaptive mechanisms emerge in the tumor, causing resistance to endocrine therapy. A better understanding of resistance mechanisms is needed to overcome this problem and to develop new, precise treatment strategies. Accumulating genetic and cancer biological studies demonstrate the importance of understanding the PI3K/Akt/mTOR and CDK4/6/RB pathways in ER+ HER2- breast cancer. PIK3CA (which encodes phosphatidylinositol-4, 5-bisphosphate 3-kinase catalytic subunit α) is frequently mutated in breast cancer, and 30% of advanced ER+ HER2- breast cancers have an activating PIK3CA mutation. AKT1 mutations (E17K) have been found in 1.4-8% of breast cancer patients. ER+ breast cancer patients preferentially demonstrate gain of CCND1 (cyclin D1; 58% in luminal B vs. 29% in luminal A) and CDK4 (25% in luminal B vs. 14% in luminal A) and loss of CDKN2A (p16) and CDKN2C (p18), which are negatively regulated with the cell cycle and are correlated with the CDK4/6/RB pathway. Abnormalities in PI3K/Akt/mTOR and CDK4/6/RB pathways due to genetic alterations result in deregulated kinase activity and malignant transformation. This review focuses on the recent reports of the essential role of PI3K/Akt/mTOR and CDK4/6/RB pathways in ER+ HER2- breast cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kazuhiro Araki
- Division of Breast and Endocrine, Department of Surgery, Cancer Center, Hyogo College of Medicine, 1-1 Mukogawa, Nishinomiya, Hyogo, 663-8501, Japan.
| | - Yasuo Miyoshi
- Division of Breast and Endocrine, Department of Surgery, Cancer Center, Hyogo College of Medicine, 1-1 Mukogawa, Nishinomiya, Hyogo, 663-8501, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Targeted therapy for genitourinary cancer is being used at an increasing rate. These medications show great survival benefit but are relatively lacking in long-term adverse effect data. With increasing survivability, measures to improve quality of life must be considered for GU cancer and a large proponent of this is sexual function. RECENT FINDINGS mTOR inhibitors have shown an effect on testosterone levels and may have a link to abnormal semen parameters. Tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) have shown no adverse sexual outcomes in the literature. There are laboratory links to tyrosine kinases having a beneficial effect on erectile and sexual function. Possible sexual side effects must be discussed with patients receiving a diagnosis of cancer. Further research is required to determine the exact mechanisms and outcomes of sexual function with new and emerging targeted therapy.
Collapse
|
6
|
Cotargeting of CYP-19 (aromatase) and emerging, pivotal signalling pathways in metastatic breast cancer. Br J Cancer 2016; 116:10-20. [PMID: 27923036 PMCID: PMC5220158 DOI: 10.1038/bjc.2016.405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2016] [Revised: 10/28/2016] [Accepted: 11/08/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Aromatase inhibition is one of the cornerstones of modern endocrine therapy of oestrogen receptor-positive (ER+) metastatic breast cancer (MBC). The nonsteroidal aromatase inhibitors anastrozole and letrozole, as well as the steroidal aromatase inactivator exemestane, are the preferred drugs and established worldwide in all clinical phases of the disease. However, although many patients suffering from MBC experience an initial stabilisation of their metastatic burden, drug resistance and disease progression occur frequently, following in general only a few months on treatment. Extensive translational research during the past two decades has elucidated the major pathways contributing to endocrine resistance and paved the way for clinical studies investigating the efficacy of novel drug combinations involving aromatase inhibitors and emerging drugable targets like mTOR, PI3K and CDK4/6. The present review summarises the basic research that provided the rationale for new drug combinations involving aromatase inhibitors and the main findings of pivotal clinical trials that have already started to change our way to treat hormone-sensitive MBC. The challenging situation of oestrogen receptor-positive and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2-positive (HER2+) MBC is also shortly reviewed to underline the complexity of the clinical scenario in the heterogeneous subgroups of hormone receptor-positive breast cancer patients and the increasing need for personalised medicine. Finally, we summarise some of the promising findings made with the combination of aromatase inhibitors with other potent endocrine treatment options like fulvestrant, a selective oestrogen receptor downregulator.
Collapse
|
7
|
Jujuboside A Protects H9C2 Cells from Isoproterenol-Induced Injury via Activating PI3K/Akt/mTOR Signaling Pathway. EVIDENCE-BASED COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 2016; 2016:9593716. [PMID: 27293469 PMCID: PMC4884826 DOI: 10.1155/2016/9593716] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2016] [Accepted: 04/26/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Jujuboside A is a kind of the saponins isolated from the seeds of Ziziphus jujuba, which possesses multiple biological effects, such as antianxiety, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory effects; however, its mediatory effect on isoproterenol-stimulated cardiomyocytes has not been investigated yet. In this study, we tried to detect the protective effect and potential mechanism of JUA on ISO-induced cardiomyocytes injury. H9C2 cells were treated with ISO to induce cell damage. Cells were pretreated with JUA to investigate the effects on the cell viability, morphological changes, light chain 3 conversion, and the activation of PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway. Results showed that ISO significantly inhibited the cell viability in a time- and dose-dependent manner. JUA pretreatment could reverse the reduction of cell viability and better the injury of H9C2 cells induced by ISO. Western blot analysis showed that JUA could accelerate the phosphorylation of PI3K, Akt, and mTOR. Results also indicated that JUA could significantly decrease the ratio of microtubule-associated protein LC3-II/I in H9C2 cells. Taken together, our research showed that JUA could notably reduce the damage cause by ISO via promoting the phosphorylation of PI3K, Akt, and mTOR and inhibiting LC3 conversion, which may be a potential choice for the treatment of heart diseases.
Collapse
|
8
|
Eloy JO, Petrilli R, Topan JF, Antonio HMR, Barcellos JPA, Chesca DL, Serafini LN, Tiezzi DG, Lee RJ, Marchetti JM. Co-loaded paclitaxel/rapamycin liposomes: Development, characterization and in vitro and in vivo evaluation for breast cancer therapy. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2016; 141:74-82. [PMID: 26836480 DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2016.01.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2015] [Revised: 01/14/2016] [Accepted: 01/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Paclitaxel and rapamycin have been reported to act synergistically to treat breast cancer. Albeit paclitaxel is available for breast cancer treatment, the most commonly used formulation in the clinic presents side effects, limiting its use. Furthermore, both drugs present pharmacokinetics drawbacks limiting their in vivo efficacy and clinic combination. As an alternative, drug delivery systems, particularly liposomes, emerge as an option for drug combination, able to simultaneously deliver co-loaded drugs with improved therapeutic index. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to develop and characterize a co-loaded paclitaxel and rapamycin liposome and evaluate it for breast cancer efficacy both in vitro and in vivo. Results showed that a SPC/Chol/DSPE-PEG (2000) liposome was able to co-encapsulate paclitaxel and rapamycin with suitable encapsulation efficiency values, nanometric particle size, low polydispersity and neutral zeta potential. Taken together, FTIR and thermal analysis evidenced drug conversion to the more bioavailable molecular and amorphous forms, respectively, for paclitaxel and rapamycin. The pegylated liposome exhibited excellent colloidal stability and was able to retain drugs encapsulated, which were released in a slow and sustained fashion. Liposomes were more cytotoxic to 4T1 breast cancer cell line than the free drugs and drugs acted synergistically, particularly when co-loaded. Finally, in vivo therapeutic evaluation carried out in 4T1-tumor-bearing mice confirmed the in vitro results. The co-loaded paclitaxel/rapamycin pegylated liposome better controlled tumor growth compared to the solution. Therefore, we expect that the formulation developed herein might be a contribution for future studies focusing on the clinical combination of paclitaxel and rapamycin.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Josimar O Eloy
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirao Preto, University of Sao Paulo, Ribeirao Preto, Avenida do Cafe s/n, 14040-903 Ribeirao Preto, SP, Brazil; College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, 500W 12th Ave, Columbus, OH 43210, United States
| | - Raquel Petrilli
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirao Preto, University of Sao Paulo, Ribeirao Preto, Avenida do Cafe s/n, 14040-903 Ribeirao Preto, SP, Brazil; College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, 500W 12th Ave, Columbus, OH 43210, United States
| | - José Fernando Topan
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirao Preto, University of Sao Paulo, Ribeirao Preto, Avenida do Cafe s/n, 14040-903 Ribeirao Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Heriton Marcelo Ribeiro Antonio
- School of Medicine of Ribeirao Preto, University of Sao Paulo, Ribeirao Preto, Avenida Bandeirantes s/n, 14040-040 Ribeirao Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Juliana Palma Abriata Barcellos
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirao Preto, University of Sao Paulo, Ribeirao Preto, Avenida do Cafe s/n, 14040-903 Ribeirao Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Deise L Chesca
- School of Medicine of Ribeirao Preto, University of Sao Paulo, Ribeirao Preto, Avenida Bandeirantes s/n, 14040-040 Ribeirao Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Luciano Neder Serafini
- School of Medicine of Ribeirao Preto, University of Sao Paulo, Ribeirao Preto, Avenida Bandeirantes s/n, 14040-040 Ribeirao Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Daniel G Tiezzi
- School of Medicine of Ribeirao Preto, University of Sao Paulo, Ribeirao Preto, Avenida Bandeirantes s/n, 14040-040 Ribeirao Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Robert J Lee
- College of Pharmacy, The Ohio State University, Columbus, 500W 12th Ave, Columbus, OH 43210, United States
| | - Juliana Maldonado Marchetti
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirao Preto, University of Sao Paulo, Ribeirao Preto, Avenida do Cafe s/n, 14040-903 Ribeirao Preto, SP, Brazil.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Pouget M, Abrial C, Planchat E, Van Praagh I, Arbre M, Kwiatkowski F, Dubray-Longeras P, Devaud H, Dohou J, Herviou P, Mahammedi H, Durando X, Chollet P, Mouret-Reynier MA. Everolimus in Metastatic Breast Cancer: Clinical Experience as a Late Treatment Line. Oncology 2015; 89:319-31. [DOI: 10.1159/000437230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2015] [Accepted: 06/18/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
|
10
|
Abstract
Decades of research are now leading to therapeutics that target the molecular mechanisms of the cancer-specific immune response. These therapeutics include tumor antigen vaccines, dendritic cell activators, adjuvants that activate innate immunity, adoptive cellular therapy, and checkpoint blockade. The advances in targeted immunotherapy have led to clinical advances in the treatment of solid tumors such as melanoma, prostate cancer, lung cancer, and hematologic malignancies. Preclinical and translational studies suggest that patients with breast cancer may also benefit from augmenting effective immune responses. These results have led to early-phase clinical trials of tumor antigen vaccines, adjuvants, and combinations of checkpoint inhibitor blockade to boost breast cancer-specific immunity in patients. This review focuses on the current and emerging development of cancer immunotherapy for breast cancer.
Collapse
|
11
|
Verzoni E, Pusceddu S, Buzzoni R, Garanzini E, Damato A, Biondani P, Testa I, Grassi P, Bajetta E, de Braud F, DeBraud F, Procopio G. Safety profile and treatment response of everolimus in different solid tumors: an observational study. Future Oncol 2015; 10:1611-7. [PMID: 25145431 DOI: 10.2217/fon.14.31] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
AIM Only few efforts have been taken to investigate the potential existence of disease-specific differences in the safety profile of everolimus. We analyze here the correlation between different patient and tumor characteristics on the safety profile of this molecule. Information on treatment response is also provided. METHODS Consecutive patients with metastatic renal cell carcinoma (mRCC), pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors (pNET) or biliary tract cancer were included in this retrospective study. All patients received everolimus 10 mg/day or 5 mg/day. Clinical assessments were performed every 3 weeks. RESULTS In total, 98 patients were enrolled: 51 with mRCC, 25 with pNET and 22 with biliary tract cancer. The incidence of toxicities (any grade) was 76% with mRCC, 64% with pNET and 95% with biliary tract cancer. Patients with biliary tract cancer also presented a higher frequency of severe toxicities: 64 versus 18% with mRCC and 32% with pNET. Multivariate analysis disclosed that biliary tract cancer (odds ratio [OR]: 23.8; 95% CI: 6.0-117.8; p < 0.0001) is a predictive factor for the development of toxicities during everolimus treatment. No correlations between liver metastasis and toxicities were identified. Disease control rate (DCR) was 45% in mRCC patients, 96% in pNET and 50% for biliary tract cancer patients. pNET tumors were associated with a higher DCR than the mRCC and biliary tract cancer (OR vs mRCC: 66.7; 95% CI: 6.2-276.5; p = 0.004; OR vs biliary tract cancer: 2.6; 95% CI: 0.5-14.2; p = 0.025). CONCLUSION This study suggests that the safety profile of everolimus is acceptable in patients with either mRCC or pNET. In addition, the onset of toxicities is associated with an improved DCR. In patients with biliary tract cancer, everolimus is safe but associated with a higher incidence of adverse events.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elena Verzoni
- Medical Oncology, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori, Via G Venezian 1, Milan, 20133, Italy
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
Yang WR, Wang Y, Wang Y, Zhang JJ, Zhang JH, Lu C, Wang XZ. mTOR is involved in 17β-estradiol-induced, cultured immature boar Sertoli cell proliferation via regulating the expression of SKP2, CCND1, and CCNE1. Mol Reprod Dev 2015; 82:305-14. [PMID: 25739982 DOI: 10.1002/mrd.22473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2014] [Accepted: 02/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) is known to be involved in mammalian cell proliferation, while S-phase kinase-associated protein 2 (SKP2) plays a vital role in the cell cycle. Within the testis, estrogen also plays an important role in Sertoli cell proliferation, although it is not clear how. The present study asked if mTOR is involved in 17β-estradiol-dependent Sertoli cell proliferation. We specifically assessed if extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) and/or phosphoinositide 3-kinase/protein kinase B (PI3K/AKT) exert convergent effects toward the activation of mTOR signaling, and if this signaling regulates the expression of SKP2 through retinoblastoma (RB) and early mitotic inhibitor 1 (EMI1) protein and on CCNE1 and CCND1 mRNA levels. Treatment with 17β-estradiol for 15-90 min activated mTOR, with mTOR phosphorylation peaking after 30 min. U0126 (5 μM), a specific inhibitor of (MEK1/2), and 10-DEBC (2 μM), a selective inhibitor of AKT, both significantly reduced 17β-estradiol-induced phosphorylation of mTOR. Rapamycin suppressed 17β-estradiol-induced Sertoli cell proliferation, appearing to act by reducing the abundance of SKP2, CCND1, and CCNE1 mRNA as well as RB and EMI1 protein. These data indicated that 17β-estradiol enhances Sertoli cell proliferation via mTOR activation, which involves both ERK1/2 and PI3K/AKT signaling. Activated mTOR subsequently increases SKP2 mRNA and protein expression by enhancing the expression of CCND1 and CCNE1, and inhibits SKP2 protein degradation by increasing EMI1 abundance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wei-Rong Yang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Southwest University, Chongqing, P. R. China; Chongqing Key Laboratory of Forage and Herbivore, Southwest University, Chongqing, P. R. China
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
Piccart M, Hortobagyi GN, Campone M, Pritchard KI, Lebrun F, Ito Y, Noguchi S, Perez A, Rugo HS, Deleu I, Burris HA, Provencher L, Neven P, Gnant M, Shtivelband M, Wu C, Fan J, Feng W, Taran T, Baselga J. Everolimus plus exemestane for hormone-receptor-positive, human epidermal growth factor receptor-2-negative advanced breast cancer: overall survival results from BOLERO-2†. Ann Oncol 2014; 25:2357-2362. [PMID: 25231953 PMCID: PMC6267855 DOI: 10.1093/annonc/mdu456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 386] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2014] [Revised: 08/27/2014] [Accepted: 09/09/2014] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The BOLERO-2 study previously demonstrated that adding everolimus (EVE) to exemestane (EXE) significantly improved progression-free survival (PFS) by more than twofold in patients with hormone-receptor-positive (HR(+)), HER2-negative advanced breast cancer that recurred or progressed during/after treatment with nonsteroidal aromatase inhibitors (NSAIs). The overall survival (OS) analysis is presented here. PATIENTS AND METHODS BOLERO-2 is a phase III, double-blind, randomized international trial comparing EVE 10 mg/day plus EXE 25 mg/day versus placebo (PBO) + EXE 25 mg/day in postmenopausal women with HR(+) advanced breast cancer with prior exposure to NSAIs. The primary end point was PFS by local investigator assessment; OS was a key secondary end point. RESULTS At the time of data cutoff (3 October 2013), 410 deaths had occurred and 13 patients remained on treatment. Median OS in patients receiving EVE + EXE was 31.0 months [95% confidence interval (CI) 28.0-34.6 months] compared with 26.6 months (95% CI 22.6-33.1 months) in patients receiving PBO + EXE (hazard ratio = 0.89; 95% CI 0.73-1.10; log-rank P = 0.14). Poststudy treatments were received by 84% of patients in the EVE + EXE arm versus 90% of patients in the PBO + EXE arm. Types of poststudy therapies were balanced across arms, except for chemotherapy (53% EVE + EXE versus 63% PBO + EXE). No new safety concerns were identified. CONCLUSIONS In BOLERO-2, adding EVE to EXE did not confer a statistically significant improvement in the secondary end point OS despite producing a clinically meaningful and statistically significant improvement in the primary end point, PFS (4.6-months prolongation in median PFS; P < 0.0001). Ongoing translational research should further refine the benefit of mTOR inhibition and related pathways in this treatment setting. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER NCT00863655.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M Piccart
- Department of Medicine, Institut Jules Bordet, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Brussels, Belgium.
| | - G N Hortobagyi
- Department of Breast Medical Oncology, Multidisciplinary Breast Cancer Research Program, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, USA
| | - M Campone
- Institut de Cancérologie de l'Ouest, René Gauducheau, Centre de Recherche en Cancérologie, Nantes Saint Herblain, France
| | - K I Pritchard
- Department of Medicine, Sunnybrook Odette Cancer Centre and the University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - F Lebrun
- Department of Medicine, Institut Jules Bordet, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Y Ito
- Department of Breast Medical Oncology, Cancer Institute Hospital, Japanese Foundation for Cancer Research, Tokyo
| | - S Noguchi
- Department of Breast and Endocrine Surgery, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - A Perez
- Breast Cancer Centers, Memorial Cancer Institute, Hollywood
| | - H S Rugo
- Breast Oncology and Clinical Trials Education, University of California, San Francisco Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, San Francisco, USA
| | - I Deleu
- Oncologic Centre, AZ Nikolaas, Sint-Niklaas, Belgium
| | - H A Burris
- Sarah Cannon Research Institute, Nashville, USA
| | - L Provencher
- Centre des Maladies du Sein Deschênes-Fabia, CHU-Hôpital du Saint Sacrement, Québec, Canada
| | - P Neven
- Multidisciplinary Breast Centre and Department of Gynecologic Oncology, University Hospitals Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - M Gnant
- Department of Surgery, Comprehensive Cancer Center Vienna, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | | | - C Wu
- Novartis Pharmaceuticals Corporation, East Hanover
| | - J Fan
- Novartis Pharmaceuticals Corporation, East Hanover
| | - W Feng
- Novartis Pharmaceuticals Corporation, East Hanover
| | - T Taran
- Novartis Pharmaceuticals Corporation, East Hanover
| | - J Baselga
- Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, USA
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Tang H, Chen J, Fraidenburg DR, Song S, Sysol JR, Drennan AR, Offermanns S, Ye RD, Bonini MG, Minshall RD, Garcia JGN, Machado RF, Makino A, Yuan JXJ. Deficiency of Akt1, but not Akt2, attenuates the development of pulmonary hypertension. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2014; 308:L208-20. [PMID: 25416384 DOI: 10.1152/ajplung.00242.2014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Pulmonary vascular remodeling, mainly attributable to enhanced pulmonary arterial smooth muscle cell proliferation and migration, is a major cause for elevated pulmonary vascular resistance and pulmonary arterial pressure in patients with pulmonary hypertension. The signaling cascade through Akt, comprised of three isoforms (Akt1-3) with distinct but overlapping functions, is involved in regulating cell proliferation and migration. This study aims to investigate whether the Akt/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway, and particularly which Akt isoform, contributes to the development and progression of pulmonary vascular remodeling in hypoxia-induced pulmonary hypertension (HPH). Compared with the wild-type littermates, Akt1(-/-) mice were protected against the development and progression of chronic HPH, whereas Akt2(-/-) mice did not demonstrate any significant protection against the development of HPH. Furthermore, pulmonary vascular remodeling was significantly attenuated in the Akt1(-/-) mice, with no significant effect noted in the Akt2(-/-) mice after chronic exposure to normobaric hypoxia (10% O2). Overexpression of the upstream repressor of Akt signaling, phosphatase and tensin homolog deleted on chromosome 10 (PTEN), and conditional and inducible knockout of mTOR in smooth muscle cells were also shown to attenuate the rise in right ventricular systolic pressure and the development of right ventricular hypertrophy. In conclusion, Akt isoforms appear to have a unique function within the pulmonary vasculature, with the Akt1 isoform having a dominant role in pulmonary vascular remodeling associated with HPH. The PTEN/Akt1/mTOR signaling pathway will continue to be a critical area of study in the pathogenesis of pulmonary hypertension, and specific Akt isoforms may help specify therapeutic targets for the treatment of pulmonary hypertension.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Haiyang Tang
- Department of Medicine, Division of Translational and Regenerative Medicine, The University of Arizona College of Medicine, Tucson, Arizona; Department of Physiology, The University of Arizona College of Medicine, Tucson, Arizona; Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, Sleep and Allergy Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Jiwang Chen
- Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, Sleep and Allergy Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Dustin R Fraidenburg
- Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, Sleep and Allergy Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Shanshan Song
- Department of Medicine, Division of Translational and Regenerative Medicine, The University of Arizona College of Medicine, Tucson, Arizona; Department of Physiology, The University of Arizona College of Medicine, Tucson, Arizona; Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, Sleep and Allergy Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Justin R Sysol
- Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, Sleep and Allergy Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois; Department of Pharmacology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois; and
| | - Abigail R Drennan
- Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, Sleep and Allergy Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Stefan Offermanns
- Department of Pharmacology, Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research, Bad Nauheim, Germany
| | - Richard D Ye
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois; and
| | - Marcelo G Bonini
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois; and
| | - Richard D Minshall
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois; and
| | - Joe G N Garcia
- Department of Medicine, Division of Translational and Regenerative Medicine, The University of Arizona College of Medicine, Tucson, Arizona
| | - Roberto F Machado
- Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, Sleep and Allergy Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Ayako Makino
- Department of Physiology, The University of Arizona College of Medicine, Tucson, Arizona
| | - Jason X-J Yuan
- Department of Medicine, Division of Translational and Regenerative Medicine, The University of Arizona College of Medicine, Tucson, Arizona; Department of Physiology, The University of Arizona College of Medicine, Tucson, Arizona; Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, Sleep and Allergy Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois; Department of Pharmacology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois; and
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Sherlock JP, Filer AD, Isaacs JD, Buckley CD. What can rheumatologists learn from translational cancer therapy? Arthritis Res Ther 2014; 15:114. [PMID: 23638860 PMCID: PMC3672806 DOI: 10.1186/ar4203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
It is well established that an intimate connection exists between inflammation and neoplasia. Indeed, particular chronic infections and autoimmune processes giving rise to prolonged site-specific inflammation are known to increase the probability of the development of specific cancers. Molecular characterisation of these processes has revealed profound similarities in the specific molecules involved in persistence of inflammation and in both the primary induction of neoplastic processes and in specification of the preferred anatomic sites of metastatic spread. The therapeutic importance of these findings is underscored by the remarkable success in the treatment of autoimmune pathology using medications initially developed for use in oncology and this arena is one of considerable therapeutic promise for rheumatologists.
Collapse
|
16
|
Ozmen A, Unek G, Kipmen-Korgun D, Cetinkaya B, Avcil Z, Korgun ET. Glucocorticoid exposure altered angiogenic factor expression via Akt/mTOR pathway in rat placenta. Ann Anat 2014; 198:34-40. [PMID: 25479925 DOI: 10.1016/j.aanat.2014.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2014] [Revised: 10/15/2014] [Accepted: 10/18/2014] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
During pregnancy, glucocorticoids (GCs) are used for fetal lung maturation in women at risk of preterm labor. Exogenous GCs do not have exclusively beneficial effects and repeated use of GCs remains controversial. It has been observed that GC exposed rats have smaller placentas and intrauterine growth retarded fetuses. In this study, we questioned whether or not glucocorticoids effect placental angiogenesis mechanisms. One of the most important signaling pathways among several downstream of VEGFR-2 is PI3K/Akt which subsequently activates the mammalian target of rapamycin. Therefore, we hypothesized that overexposure to GCs may adversely affect placental angiogenesis mechanisms by regulating pro-angiogenic factors and their receptors via Akt/mTOR pathway. According to our results Dexamethasone, a synthetic glucocorticoid, administration led to a decrease in VEGF, PIGF expression during pregnancy. VEGFR2 expression was first decreased at gestational day 14 and afterwards increased at gestational days 16, 18 and 20 in rat placentas. These results are in accordance with the reduced phosphorylation of Akt, 4EBP1 and p70S6K. Dexamethasone injection also resulted in a reduction of VEGF, VEGFR1, and VEGFR2 mRNA expression at gestational days 14 and 20, but PIGF mRNA expression was not altered. Growth retarded fetuses seen in Dexamethasone treated pregnancies, may be a result of altered angiogenic factor expression of the placenta mediated via altered mTOR pathway signaling.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Asli Ozmen
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Medical Faculty, Akdeniz University, 07070 Antalya, Turkey
| | - Gozde Unek
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Medical Faculty, Akdeniz University, 07070 Antalya, Turkey
| | - Dijle Kipmen-Korgun
- Department of Biochemistry, Medical Faculty, Akdeniz University, 07070 Antalya, Turkey
| | - Busra Cetinkaya
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Medical Faculty, Akdeniz University, 07070 Antalya, Turkey
| | - Zeynep Avcil
- Department of Biochemistry, Medical Faculty, Akdeniz University, 07070 Antalya, Turkey
| | - Emin Türkay Korgun
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Medical Faculty, Akdeniz University, 07070 Antalya, Turkey.
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Ermert P, Moehle K, Obrecht D. Macrocyclic Inhibitors of GPCR's, Integrins and Protein–Protein Interactions. MACROCYCLES IN DRUG DISCOVERY 2014. [DOI: 10.1039/9781782623113-00283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
This chapter summarizes some highlights of macrocyclic drug discovery in the area of GPCRs, integrins, and protein–protein interactions spanning roughly the last 30 years. Several examples demonstrate that incorporation of pharmacophores derived from natural peptide ligands into the context of a constrained macrocycle (“lock of the bioactive conformation”) has proven a powerful approach for the discovery of potent and selective macrocyclic drugs. In addition, it will be shown that macrocycles, due to their semi-rigid nature, can exhibit unique properties that can be beneficially exploited by medicinal chemists. Macrocycles can adapt their conformation during binding to a flexible protein target surface (“induced fit”), and due to their size, can interact with larger protein interfaces (“hot spots”). Also, macrocycles can display favorable ADME properties well beyond the rule of 5 in particular exhibiting favorable cell penetrating properties and oral bioavailability.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Philipp Ermert
- Polyphor Ltd Hegenheimermattweg 125 CH-4123 Allschwil Switzerland
| | - Kerstin Moehle
- University of Zurich Winterthurerstrasse 190 CH-8057 Zurich Switzerland
| | - Daniel Obrecht
- Polyphor Ltd Hegenheimermattweg 125 CH-4123 Allschwil Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Abraham J. PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway inhibitors: the ideal combination partners for breast cancer therapies? Expert Rev Anticancer Ther 2014; 15:51-68. [PMID: 25306975 DOI: 10.1586/14737140.2015.961429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Activation of the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/AKT/mTOR pathway is common in breast cancer. PI3K pathway activation has been associated with tumor growth and progression, and thus is a promising target for breast cancer therapy. Agents targeting the PI3K pathway can restore sensitivity to standard breast cancer therapies, including endocrine, HER2-targeted agents and chemotherapy, by suppressing PI3K pathway activation, which is central to the development of therapeutic resistance. The combination of endocrine therapy and PI3K pathway (mTOR) inhibition has proven clinical benefit, and novel combination strategies involving PI3K pathway inhibitors and other investigational targeted therapies are now being explored clinically in patients with breast cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jame Abraham
- Cleveland Clinic, Taussig Cancer Institute, 9500 Euclid Ave, R-35, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
de Jongste AH, van Gelder T, Bromberg JE, de Graaf MT, Gratama JW, Schreurs MW, Hooijkaas H, Sillevis Smitt PA. A prospective open-label study of sirolimus for the treatment of anti-Hu associated paraneoplastic neurological syndromes. Neuro Oncol 2014; 17:145-50. [PMID: 24994790 DOI: 10.1093/neuonc/nou126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Several lines of evidence suggest a T cell-mediated immune response in paraneoplastic neurological syndromes with anti-Hu antibodies (Hu-PNS). In order to investigate whether suppression of T cell-mediated immune responses in Hu-PNS patients improved their neurological outcome, we performed a prospective open-label, single-arm study on sirolimus. METHODS Seventeen progressive Hu-PNS patients were treated with sirolimus with an intended treatment duration of 8 weeks. Primary outcome measures were (i) functional improvement, defined as a decrease of one or more points on the modified Rankin Scale (mRS), and (ii) improvement of neurological impairment, defined as an increase of one or more points on the Edinburgh Functional Impairment Tests (EFIT). RESULTS One patient showed improvement on both clinical scales (mRS and EFIT). This patient presented with limbic encephalitis and improved dramatically from an mRS score of 3 to mRS 1. Another patient, with subacute sensory neuronopathy, remained stable at mRS 2 and improved one point on the EFIT scale. The other patients showed no improvement on the primary outcome measures. Median survival was 21 months. CONCLUSION We conclude that treatment of Hu-PNS patients with sirolimus may improve or stabilize their functional disabilities and neurological impairments. However, the effects of this T cell-targeted therapy were not better than reported in trials on other immunotherapies for Hu-PNS. Trial Registration https://www.clinicaltrialsregister.eu/ctr-search/trial/2008-000793-20/NL.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Adriaan H de Jongste
- Department of Neurology, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands (A.H.d.J., J.E.B., M.T.d.G., P.A.S.S.); Department of Medical Oncology, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands (A.H.d.J., J.W.G); Department of Hospital Pharmacy, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands (T.v.G.); Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands (T.v.G.); Department of Immunology, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands (M.W.S., H.H.)
| | - Teun van Gelder
- Department of Neurology, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands (A.H.d.J., J.E.B., M.T.d.G., P.A.S.S.); Department of Medical Oncology, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands (A.H.d.J., J.W.G); Department of Hospital Pharmacy, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands (T.v.G.); Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands (T.v.G.); Department of Immunology, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands (M.W.S., H.H.)
| | - Jacoline E Bromberg
- Department of Neurology, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands (A.H.d.J., J.E.B., M.T.d.G., P.A.S.S.); Department of Medical Oncology, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands (A.H.d.J., J.W.G); Department of Hospital Pharmacy, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands (T.v.G.); Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands (T.v.G.); Department of Immunology, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands (M.W.S., H.H.)
| | - Marieke T de Graaf
- Department of Neurology, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands (A.H.d.J., J.E.B., M.T.d.G., P.A.S.S.); Department of Medical Oncology, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands (A.H.d.J., J.W.G); Department of Hospital Pharmacy, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands (T.v.G.); Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands (T.v.G.); Department of Immunology, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands (M.W.S., H.H.)
| | - Jan W Gratama
- Department of Neurology, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands (A.H.d.J., J.E.B., M.T.d.G., P.A.S.S.); Department of Medical Oncology, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands (A.H.d.J., J.W.G); Department of Hospital Pharmacy, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands (T.v.G.); Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands (T.v.G.); Department of Immunology, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands (M.W.S., H.H.)
| | - Marco W Schreurs
- Department of Neurology, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands (A.H.d.J., J.E.B., M.T.d.G., P.A.S.S.); Department of Medical Oncology, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands (A.H.d.J., J.W.G); Department of Hospital Pharmacy, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands (T.v.G.); Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands (T.v.G.); Department of Immunology, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands (M.W.S., H.H.)
| | - Herbert Hooijkaas
- Department of Neurology, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands (A.H.d.J., J.E.B., M.T.d.G., P.A.S.S.); Department of Medical Oncology, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands (A.H.d.J., J.W.G); Department of Hospital Pharmacy, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands (T.v.G.); Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands (T.v.G.); Department of Immunology, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands (M.W.S., H.H.)
| | - Peter A Sillevis Smitt
- Department of Neurology, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands (A.H.d.J., J.E.B., M.T.d.G., P.A.S.S.); Department of Medical Oncology, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands (A.H.d.J., J.W.G); Department of Hospital Pharmacy, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands (T.v.G.); Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands (T.v.G.); Department of Immunology, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, Netherlands (M.W.S., H.H.)
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Ng VC, Johnson JJ, Cuellar S. Targeting the mammalian target of rapamycin pathway with everolimus: implications for the management of metastatic breast cancer. J Oncol Pharm Pract 2014; 21:433-42. [PMID: 24964967 DOI: 10.1177/1078155214540732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The inhibitors of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) have documented antitumor activity via disruption of various signaling pathways leading to impaired cellular growth, proliferation, and survival. In preclinical studies, mTOR inhibitors use in combination with hormonal therapy has shown promising results in overcoming endocrine resistance in breast cancer cells. The role of everolimus in breast cancer was established in the Breast Cancer Trial of Oral Everolimus-2 (BOLERO-2) trial in combination with exemestane for patients with advanced metastatic hormone receptor-positive (HR+) breast cancer, who relapsed after initial hormonal manipulation. The study met its primary endpoint of significant improvement in progression free survival (PFS) with a median time to progression of 6.9 months in the combination group versus 2.8 months in exemestane group. Favorable improvements in PFS were reported across all patient subgroups regardless of age, Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group performance status, number of prior therapies, and presence of visceral metastases. Adverse events were mostly mild to moderate in severity and consistent with the known safety profile of everolimus. Major toxicities reported include stomatitis, non-infectious pneumonitis, and hyperglycemia. The purpose of this review is to discuss the role of everolimus as a valuable component in advanced metastatic breast cancer and delineate current strategies to prevent and manage the most common toxicities associated with this combination regimen.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vin Cci Ng
- Department of Pharmacy, Singapore General Hospital, Outram Rd Singapore, 169680 Singapore
| | - Jeremy J Johnson
- Department of Pharmacy, Singapore General Hospital, Outram Rd Singapore, 169680 Singapore Cancer Center, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Sandra Cuellar
- Department of Pharmacy, Singapore General Hospital, Outram Rd Singapore, 169680 Singapore Cancer Center, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Chang H, Peng X, Bai Q, Zhou Y, Yu X, Zhang Q, Zhu J, Mi M. Ampelopsin suppresses breast carcinogenesis by inhibiting the mTOR signalling pathway. Carcinogenesis 2014; 35:1847-54. [PMID: 24861637 DOI: 10.1093/carcin/bgu118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), which is a master regulator of cellular catabolism and anabolism, plays an important role in tumourigenesis and progression. In this study, we report the chemopreventive effect of the dietary compound ampelopsin (AMP) on breast carcinogenesis in vivo and in vitro, which acts by inhibiting the mTOR signalling pathway. Our study indicates that AMP treatment effectively suppresses 1-methyl-1-nitrosourea (MNU)-induced breast carcinogenesis in rats and inhibits 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK) and benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P)-induced cellular carcinogenesis. Additionally, AMP inhibits the growth of breast cancer cells in vitro and in vivo. The activity of mTOR kinase was found to be significantly increased in a time-dependent manner during chronic breast carcinogenesis, and this increase can be suppressed by AMP co-treatment. AMP also effectively suppresses mTOR activity in breast cancer MDA-MB-231 cells. We also demonstrated that AMP is an effective mTOR inhibitor that binds to one site on the mTOR target in two ways. Further studies confirmed that AMP inhibits the activation of Akt, suppresses the formation of mTOR complexes (mTORC)1/2 by dissociating regulatory-associated protein of mTOR and rapamycin-insensitive companion of mTOR and, consequently, decreases the activation of the downstream targets of mTOR, including ribosomal p70-S6 kinase, ribosomal protein S6, eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4B and eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E-binding protein 1. These finding suggest that AMP is a bioactive natural chemopreventive agent against breast carcinogenesis and is an effective mTOR inhibitor that may be developed as a useful chemotherapeutic agent in the treatment of breast cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hui Chang
- Research Center for Nutrition and Food Safety, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Nutrition and Food Safety, Chongqing, China and Department of Public Health, School of Preclinical Medicine, Chengdu Medical College, Chengdu, China
| | - Xiaoli Peng
- Department of Public Health, School of Preclinical Medicine, Chengdu Medical College, Chengdu, China
| | - Qian Bai
- Research Center for Nutrition and Food Safety, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Nutrition and Food Safety, Chongqing, China and Department of Public Health, School of Preclinical Medicine, Chengdu Medical College, Chengdu, China
| | - Yong Zhou
- Research Center for Nutrition and Food Safety, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Nutrition and Food Safety, Chongqing, China and Department of Public Health, School of Preclinical Medicine, Chengdu Medical College, Chengdu, China
| | - Xiaoping Yu
- Department of Public Health, School of Preclinical Medicine, Chengdu Medical College, Chengdu, China
| | - Qianyong Zhang
- Research Center for Nutrition and Food Safety, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Nutrition and Food Safety, Chongqing, China and Department of Public Health, School of Preclinical Medicine, Chengdu Medical College, Chengdu, China
| | - Jundong Zhu
- Research Center for Nutrition and Food Safety, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Nutrition and Food Safety, Chongqing, China and Department of Public Health, School of Preclinical Medicine, Chengdu Medical College, Chengdu, China
| | - Mantian Mi
- Research Center for Nutrition and Food Safety, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Nutrition and Food Safety, Chongqing, China and Department of Public Health, School of Preclinical Medicine, Chengdu Medical College, Chengdu, China
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Bajer MM, Kunze MM, Blees JS, Bokesch HR, Chen H, Brauss TF, Dong Z, Gustafson KR, Biondi RM, Henrich CJ, McMahon JB, Colburn NH, Schmid T, Brüne B. Characterization of pomiferin triacetate as a novel mTOR and translation inhibitor. Biochem Pharmacol 2014; 88:313-21. [PMID: 24513322 PMCID: PMC3978168 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2014.01.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2013] [Revised: 01/08/2014] [Accepted: 01/24/2014] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Deregulation of the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)-Akt-mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR)-70kDa ribosomal protein S6 kinase 1 (p70(S6K)) pathway is commonly observed in many tumors. This pathway controls proliferation, survival, and translation, and its overactivation is associated with poor prognosis for tumor-associated survival. Current efforts focus on the development of novel inhibitors of this pathway. In a cell-based high-throughput screening assay of 15,272 pure natural compounds, we identified pomiferin triacetate as a potent stabilizer of the tumor suppressor programmed cell death 4 (Pdcd4). Mechanistically, pomiferin triacetate appeared as a general inhibitor of the PI3K-Akt-mTOR-p70(S6K) cascade. Interference with this pathway occurred downstream of Akt but upstream of p70(S6K). Specifically, mTOR kinase emerged as the molecular target of pomiferin triacetate, with similar activities against mTOR complexes 1 and 2. In an in vitro mTOR kinase assay pomiferin triacetate dose-dependently inhibited mTOR with an IC50 of 6.2 μM. Molecular docking studies supported the interaction of the inhibitor with the catalytic site of mTOR. Importantly, pomiferin triacetate appeared to be highly selective for mTOR compared to a panel of 17 lipid and 50 protein kinases tested. As a consequence of the mTOR inhibition, pomiferin triacetate efficiently attenuated translation. In summary, pomiferin triacetate emerged as a novel and highly specific mTOR inhibitor with strong translation inhibitory effects. Thus, it might be an interesting lead structure for the development of mTOR- and translation-targeted anti-tumor therapies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena M Bajer
- Institute of Biochemistry I, Faculty of Medicine, Goethe-University Frankfurt, 60590 Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Michael M Kunze
- Institute of Biochemistry I, Faculty of Medicine, Goethe-University Frankfurt, 60590 Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Johanna S Blees
- Institute of Biochemistry I, Faculty of Medicine, Goethe-University Frankfurt, 60590 Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Heidi R Bokesch
- Molecular Targets Laboratory, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute-Frederick, Frederick, MD 21702, USA; Basic Science Program, Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
| | - Hanyong Chen
- The Hormel Institute, University of Minnesota, Austin, MN 55912, USA
| | - Thilo F Brauss
- Institute of Biochemistry I, Faculty of Medicine, Goethe-University Frankfurt, 60590 Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Zigang Dong
- The Hormel Institute, University of Minnesota, Austin, MN 55912, USA
| | - Kirk R Gustafson
- Molecular Targets Laboratory, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute-Frederick, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
| | - Ricardo M Biondi
- Research Group PhosphoSites, Department of Internal Medicine I, University Clinic, 60590 Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Curtis J Henrich
- Molecular Targets Laboratory, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute-Frederick, Frederick, MD 21702, USA; Basic Science Program, Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
| | - James B McMahon
- Molecular Targets Laboratory, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute-Frederick, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
| | - Nancy H Colburn
- Laboratory of Cancer Prevention, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute-Frederick, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
| | - Tobias Schmid
- Institute of Biochemistry I, Faculty of Medicine, Goethe-University Frankfurt, 60590 Frankfurt, Germany.
| | - Bernhard Brüne
- Institute of Biochemistry I, Faculty of Medicine, Goethe-University Frankfurt, 60590 Frankfurt, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Deutsch SI, Tang AH, Burket JA, Benson AD. NMDA receptors on the surface of cancer cells: target for chemotherapy? Biomed Pharmacother 2014; 68:493-6. [PMID: 24751001 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2014.03.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2014] [Accepted: 03/13/2014] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), a serine/threonine kinase, is a therapeutic target for many types of cancers. NMDA receptors regulate mTOR signalling activity; their inappropriate expression on several human cancer cell lines represents a potential therapeutic avenue to control dysregulated growth, division and invasiveness. Targeting these receptors with selective ligands (e.g., glycineB site ligands) may be a less toxic and more tolerable approach than administering compounds acting at the mTORC1 complex itself, such as rapamycin and its derivatives. Thus, testing glycineB site ligands in relevant in vitro and in vivo paradigms with established human cancer cells that express NMDA receptors on their surface could provide proofs of concept/principle that would encourage exploration of these and other "non-toxic" strategies. Interestingly, in some cancer models that express NMDA receptors on their surface, NMDA receptor antagonists, such as MK-801 (dizocilpine), were shown to possess anti-proliferative and anti-invasive effects, which conflict with hypotheses about promoting NMDA receptor activation as a cancer chemotherapeutic strategy. Whether NMDA receptor activation or antagonism is associated with anti-proliferative and anti-invasive effects may reflect differences between cancer cell lines in terms of the proteins associated with the NMDA receptors on their cell surfaces, which, in turn, could lead to different "downstream" effects on cascades of intracellular phosphorylations. Irrespective of whether activation or antagonism is associated with anti-proliferative and anti-invasive effects for specific types of cancer, data are emerging that support exploration of targeting NMDA receptors expressed on the surface of cancer cells as a therapeutic strategy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stephen I Deutsch
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Eastern Virginia Medical School, Norfolk, VA, United States.
| | - Amy H Tang
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Cell Biology, Eastern Virginia Medical School, Norfolk, VA, United States
| | - Jessica A Burket
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Eastern Virginia Medical School, Norfolk, VA, United States
| | - Andrew D Benson
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Eastern Virginia Medical School, Norfolk, VA, United States
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
CD44-tropic polymeric nanocarrier for breast cancer targeted rapamycin chemotherapy. NANOMEDICINE-NANOTECHNOLOGY BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE 2014; 10:1221-30. [PMID: 24637218 DOI: 10.1016/j.nano.2014.02.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2013] [Revised: 02/06/2014] [Accepted: 02/26/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED In contrast with the conventional targeting of nanoparticles to cancer cells with antibody or peptide conjugates, a hyaluronic acid (HA) matrix nanoparticle with intrinsic-CD44-tropism was developed to deliver rapamycin for localized CD44-positive breast cancer treatment. Rapamycin was chemically conjugated to the particle surface via a novel sustained-release linker, 3-amino-4-methoxy-benzoic acid. The release of the drug from the HA nanoparticle was improved by 42-fold compared to HA-temsirolimus in buffered saline. In CD44-positive MDA-MB-468 cells, using HA as drug delivery carrier, the cell viability was significantly decreased compared to free rapamycin and CD44-blocked controls. Rat pharmacokinetics showed that the area under the curve of HA nanoparticle formulation was 2.96-fold greater than that of the free drug, and the concomitant total body clearance was 8.82-fold slower. Moreover, in immunocompetent BALB/c mice bearing CD44-positive 4T1.2neu breast cancer, the rapamycin-loaded HA particles significantly improved animal survival, suppressed tumor growth and reduced the prevalence of lung metastasis. FROM THE CLINICAL EDITOR This study demonstrates increased efficiency of rapamycin delivery and consequential treatment effects in a breast cancer model by hyaluronic acid - L-rapamycin conjugates with intrinsic tropism for CD44-positive cells.
Collapse
|
25
|
Liegl R, Koenig S, Siedlecki J, Haritoglou C, Kampik A, Kernt M. Temsirolimus inhibits proliferation and migration in retinal pigment epithelial and endothelial cells via mTOR inhibition and decreases VEGF and PDGF expression. PLoS One 2014; 9:e88203. [PMID: 24586308 PMCID: PMC3935828 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0088203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2013] [Accepted: 01/10/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Due to their high prevalence, retinal vascular diseases including age related macular degeneration (AMD), retinal vein occlusions (RVO), diabetic retinopathy (DR) and diabetic macular edema have been major therapeutic targets over the last years. The pathogenesis of these diseases is complex and yet not fully understood. However, increased proliferation, migration and angiogenesis are characteristic cellular features in almost every retinal vascular disease. The introduction of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) binding intravitreal treatment strategies has led to great advances in the therapy of these diseases. While the predominant part of affected patients benefits from the specific binding of VEGF by administering an anti-VEGF antibody into the vitreous cavity, a small number of non-responders exist and alternative or additional therapeutic strategies should therefore be evaluated. The mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) is a central signaling pathway that eventually triggers up-regulation of cellular proliferation, migration and survival and has been identified to play a key role in angiogenesis. In the present study we were able to show that both retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells as wells as human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) are inhibited in proliferating and migrating after treatment with temsirolimus in non-toxic concentrations. Previous studies suggest that the production of VEGF, platelet derived growth factor (PDGF) and other important cytokines is not only triggered by hypoxia but also by mTOR itself. Our results indicate that temsirolimus decreases VEGF and PDGF expression on RNA and protein levels significantly. We therefore believe that the mTOR inhibitor temsirolimus might be a promising drug in the future and it seems worthwhile to evaluate complementary therapeutic effects with anti-VEGF drugs for patients not profiting from mono anti-VEGF therapy alone.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Raffael Liegl
- Department of Ophthalmology, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
| | - Susanna Koenig
- Department of Ophthalmology, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
| | - Jakob Siedlecki
- Department of Ophthalmology, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
| | | | - Anselm Kampik
- Department of Ophthalmology, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
| | - Marcus Kernt
- Department of Ophthalmology, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Xu Y, Pang X, Dong M, Wen F, Zhang Y. Nesfatin-1 inhibits ovarian epithelial carcinoma cell proliferation in vitro. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2013; 440:467-72. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2013.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2013] [Accepted: 06/01/2013] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
|
27
|
Wang Q, Luo C, Wu X, Du H, Song X, Fan Y. hepaCAM and p-mTOR Closely Correlate in Bladder Transitional Cell Carcinoma and hepaCAM Expression Inhibits Proliferation via an AMPK/mTOR Dependent Pathway in Human Bladder Cancer Cells. J Urol 2013; 190:1912-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.juro.2013.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/06/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Qiuju Wang
- Key Laboratory of Diagnostics Medicine designated by the Ministry of Education, Chongqing Medical University and Department of Urology, First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University (XW), Chongqing, People's Republic of China
| | - Chunli Luo
- Key Laboratory of Diagnostics Medicine designated by the Ministry of Education, Chongqing Medical University and Department of Urology, First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University (XW), Chongqing, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaohou Wu
- Key Laboratory of Diagnostics Medicine designated by the Ministry of Education, Chongqing Medical University and Department of Urology, First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University (XW), Chongqing, People's Republic of China
| | - Hongfei Du
- Key Laboratory of Diagnostics Medicine designated by the Ministry of Education, Chongqing Medical University and Department of Urology, First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University (XW), Chongqing, People's Republic of China
| | - Xuedong Song
- Key Laboratory of Diagnostics Medicine designated by the Ministry of Education, Chongqing Medical University and Department of Urology, First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University (XW), Chongqing, People's Republic of China
| | - Yanru Fan
- Key Laboratory of Diagnostics Medicine designated by the Ministry of Education, Chongqing Medical University and Department of Urology, First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University (XW), Chongqing, People's Republic of China
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Ghrelin inhibits ovarian epithelial carcinoma cell proliferation in vitro. Oncol Rep 2013; 30:2063-70. [PMID: 23982275 DOI: 10.3892/or.2013.2692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2013] [Accepted: 06/18/2013] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
The only orexigenic peptide, ghrelin, which is primarily produced by the gastrointestinal tract, has been implicated in malignant cell proliferation and invasion. Ghrelin is a natural ligand of the growth hormone secretagogue receptor 1a (GHSR1a). However, the role of ghrelin in ovarian epithelial carcinoma remains unknown since the expression of GHSR1a in ovary is not confirmed. The aim of the present study was to assess expression of ghrelin and its receptor in human ovarian epithelial carcinoma and to examine the effect of ghrelin on carcinoma cell proliferation. Frozen sections of ovarian samples and the human ovarian epithelial carcinoma cell line, HO-8910, were used to characterize the expression of ghrelin/GHSR1a axis and the effect of ghrelin on proliferation. We found that ghrelin and GHSR1a are expressed in ovarian epithelial carcinoma in vivo and in vitro. Ghrelin inhibits the proliferation and growth of HO-8910 cells by G1 phase arrest, and this inhibition may be abolished by the ghrelin receptor antagonist D-Lys-3-GH-releasing peptide-6 and ghrelin neutralizing antibody. Ghrelin enhances HO-8910 cell apoptosis and autophagy. The activation of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway blocks the effects of ghrelin-induced autophagy and apoptosis, therefore reverses the inhibition of HO-8910 cell proliferation induced by ghrelin. In conclusion, the present study demonstrates that ghrelin inhibits the proliferation of human HO-8910 ovarian epithelial carcinoma cells by inducing apoptosis and autophagy via the mTOR signaling pathway. This study provides a novel regulatory signaling pathway of ghrelin-regulated ovarian epithelial carcinoma growth and may contribute to ovarian cancer prevention and therapy.
Collapse
|
29
|
Lv X, Ma X, Hu Y. Furthering the design and the discovery of small molecule ATP-competitive mTOR inhibitors as an effective cancer treatment. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2013; 8:991-1012. [PMID: 23668243 DOI: 10.1517/17460441.2013.800479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) is a serine/threonine kinase, which is the key component of two distinct signaling complexes in cells; these complexes are the mTOR complex 1 (mTORC1) and the mTOR complex 2 (mTORC2). Given the importance of these complexes in cellular growth, survival, motility, proliferation, protein synthesis and transcription, it is not surprising that they are impacted in multiple types of cancer. Studies on a number of ATP-competitive mTOR inhibitors have suggested that these inhibitors have a therapeutic superiority to rapalogs (rapamycin analogs) in a number of cancers. AREAS COVERED This review provides insight into the binding of mTOR inhibitors with the ATP-binding site, for the benefit of future mTOR inhibitor design and discovery. The authors, furthermore, deduce that a hypothetical binding mode is from docking studies, co-crystal structures and the structure-activity relationships (SARs). The authors also highlight the preclinical and clinical development of hit/lead compounds, and the selectivity for representative mTOR inhibitors. EXPERT OPINION The structural analysis of mTOR is hampered by its large size and complexity. Further exploration of mTOR inhibitors may therefore require the combination of structure-based drug design (SBDD, based on the mTOR homology models), fragment-based drug design (FBDD) and analog synthesis. Recent studies suggested that the global inhibition of PI3Ks may be harmful to organisms. Therefore, the future discovery of dual mTOR/PI3K inhibitors needs to ensure that inhibitors are both efficacious and have reduced adverse effects.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoqing Lv
- Zhejiang University, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, ZJU-ENS Joint Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | | | | |
Collapse
|