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Lee ZY, Lee WH, Lim JS, Ali AAA, Loo JSE, Wibowo A, Mohammat MF, Foo JB. Golgi apparatus targeted therapy in cancer: Are we there yet? Life Sci 2024; 352:122868. [PMID: 38936604 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2024.122868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2024] [Revised: 06/14/2024] [Accepted: 06/20/2024] [Indexed: 06/29/2024]
Abstract
Membrane trafficking within the Golgi apparatus plays a pivotal role in the intracellular transportation of lipids and proteins. Dysregulation of this process can give rise to various pathological manifestations, including cancer. Exploiting Golgi defects, cancer cells capitalise on aberrant membrane trafficking to facilitate signal transduction, proliferation, invasion, immune modulation, angiogenesis, and metastasis. Despite the identification of several molecular signalling pathways associated with Golgi abnormalities, there remains a lack of approved drugs specifically targeting cancer cells through the manipulation of the Golgi apparatus. In the initial section of this comprehensive review, the focus is directed towards delineating the abnormal Golgi genes and proteins implicated in carcinogenesis. Subsequently, a thorough examination is conducted on the impact of these variations on Golgi function, encompassing aspects such as vesicular trafficking, glycosylation, autophagy, oxidative mechanisms, and pH alterations. Lastly, the review provides a current update on promising Golgi apparatus-targeted inhibitors undergoing preclinical and/or clinical trials, offering insights into their potential as therapeutic interventions. Significantly more effort is required to advance these potential inhibitors to benefit patients in clinical settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zheng Yang Lee
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Taylor's University, 47500 Subang Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Wen Hwei Lee
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Taylor's University, 47500 Subang Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Jing Sheng Lim
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Taylor's University, 47500 Subang Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Afiqah Ali Ajmel Ali
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Taylor's University, 47500 Subang Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Jason Siau Ee Loo
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Taylor's University, 47500 Subang Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia; Digital Health and Medical Advancements Impact Lab, Taylor's University, Subang Jaya 47500, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Agustono Wibowo
- Faculty of Applied Science, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) Pahang, Jengka Campus, 26400 Bandar Tun Abdul Razak Jengka, Pahang, Malaysia
| | - Mohd Fazli Mohammat
- Organic Synthesis Laboratory, Institute of Science, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Jhi Biau Foo
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Taylor's University, 47500 Subang Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia; Digital Health and Medical Advancements Impact Lab, Taylor's University, Subang Jaya 47500, Selangor, Malaysia
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Sun D, Guo Y, Tang P, Li H, Chen L. Arf6 as a therapeutic target: Structure, mechanism, and inhibitors. Acta Pharm Sin B 2023; 13:4089-4104. [PMID: 37799386 PMCID: PMC10547916 DOI: 10.1016/j.apsb.2023.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2023] [Revised: 04/28/2023] [Accepted: 06/02/2023] [Indexed: 10/07/2023] Open
Abstract
ADP-ribosylation factor 6 (Arf6), a small G-protein of the Ras superfamily, plays pivotal roles in multiple cellular events, including exocytosis, endocytosis, actin remodeling, plasma membrane reorganization and vesicular transport. Arf6 regulates the progression of cancer through the activation of cell motility and invasion. Aberrant Arf6 activation is a potential therapeutic target. This review aims to understand the comprehensive function of Arf6 for future cancer therapy. The Arf6 GEFs, protein structure, and roles in cancer have been summarized. Comprehending the mechanism underlying Arf6-mediated cancer cell growth and survival is essential. The structural features of Arf6 and its efforts are discussed and may be contributed to the discovery of future novel protein-protein interaction inhibitors. In addition, Arf6 inhibitors and mechanism of action are listed in the table. This review further emphasizes the crucial roles in drug resistance and attempts to offer an outlook of Arf6 in cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dejuan Sun
- Wuya College of Innovation, Key Laboratory of Structure-Based Drug Design & Discovery, Ministry of Education, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, China
| | - Yuanyuan Guo
- Wuya College of Innovation, Key Laboratory of Structure-Based Drug Design & Discovery, Ministry of Education, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, China
| | - Piyu Tang
- Wuya College of Innovation, Key Laboratory of Structure-Based Drug Design & Discovery, Ministry of Education, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, China
| | - Hua Li
- Wuya College of Innovation, Key Laboratory of Structure-Based Drug Design & Discovery, Ministry of Education, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, China
- College of Pharmacy, Fujian University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Fuzhou 350122, China
| | - Lixia Chen
- Wuya College of Innovation, Key Laboratory of Structure-Based Drug Design & Discovery, Ministry of Education, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, China
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Hu Y, Huang Y, Xie X, Li L, Zhang Y, Zhang X. ARF6 promotes hepatocellular carcinoma proliferation through activating STAT3 signaling. Cancer Cell Int 2023; 23:205. [PMID: 37716993 PMCID: PMC10505330 DOI: 10.1186/s12935-023-03053-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2023] [Accepted: 09/03/2023] [Indexed: 09/18/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Hepatocellular Carcinoma (HCC) possesses the high mortality in cancers worldwide. Nevertheless, the concrete mechanism underlying HCC proliferation remains obscure. In this study, we show that high expression of ARF6 is associated with a poor clinical prognosis, which could boost the proliferation of HCC. METHODS Immunohistochemistry and western blotting were used to detect the expression level of ARF6 in HCC tissues. We analyzed the clinical significance of ARF6 in primary HCC patients. We estimated the effect of ARF6 on tumor proliferation with in vitro CCK8, colony formation assay, and in vivo nude mouse xenograft models. Immunofluorescence was conducted to investigate the ARF6 localization. western blotting was used to detect the cell cycle-related proteins with. Additionally, we examined the correlation between ARF6 and STAT3 signaling in HCC with western blotting, immunohistochemistry and xenograft assay. RESULTS ARF6 was upregulated in HCC tissues compared to adjacent normal liver tissues. The increased expression of ARF6 correlated with poor tumor differentiation, incomplete tumor encapsulation, advanced tumor TNM stage and poor prognosis. ARF6 obviously promoted HCC cell proliferation, colony formation, and cell cycle progression. In vivo nude mouse xenograft models showed that ARF6 enhanced tumor growth. Furthermore, ARF6 activated the STAT3 signaling and ARF6 expression was positively correlated with phosphorylated STAT3 level in HCC tissues. Furthermore, after intervening of STAT3, the effect of ARF6 on tumor-promoting was weakened, which demonstrated ARF6 functioned through STAT3 signaling in HCC. CONCLUSIONS Our results indicate that ARF6 promotes HCC proliferation through activating STAT3 signaling, suggesting that ARF6 may serve as potential prognostic and therapeutic targets for HCC patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yabing Hu
- Department of Dermatology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Wuhan No.1 Hospital, Wuhan, China
| | - Yongchu Huang
- Department of Dermatology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Xiaohang Xie
- Department of Dermatology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Longshan Li
- Department of Dermatology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Yong Zhang
- Department of Dermatology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Xiaochao Zhang
- Department of Dermatology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China.
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4
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Ferlizza E, Romaniello D, Borrelli F, Pagano F, Girone C, Gelfo V, Kuhre RS, Morselli A, Mazzeschi M, Sgarzi M, Filippini DM, D'Uva G, Lauriola M. Extracellular Vesicles and Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor Activation: Interplay of Drivers in Cancer Progression. Cancers (Basel) 2023; 15:cancers15112970. [PMID: 37296932 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15112970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2023] [Revised: 05/12/2023] [Accepted: 05/25/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are of great interest to study the cellular mechanisms of cancer development and to diagnose and monitor cancer progression. EVs are a highly heterogeneous population of cell derived particles, which include microvesicles (MVs) and exosomes (EXOs). EVs deliver intercellular messages transferring proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and metabolites with implications for tumour progression, invasiveness, and metastasis. Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (EGFR) is a major driver of cancer. Tumour cells with activated EGFR could produce EVs disseminating EGFR itself or its ligands. This review provides an overview of EVs (mainly EXOs and MVs) and their cargo, with a subsequent focus on their production and effects related to EGFR activation. In particular, in vitro studies performed in EGFR-dependent solid tumours and/or cell cultures will be explored, thus shedding light on the interplay between EGFR and EVs production in promoting cancer progression, metastases, and resistance to therapies. Finally, an overview of liquid biopsy approaches involving EGFR and EVs in the blood/plasma of EGFR-dependent tumour patients will also be discussed to evaluate their possible application as candidate biomarkers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enea Ferlizza
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences (DIMEC), University of Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy
| | - Donatella Romaniello
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences (DIMEC), University of Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy
| | - Francesco Borrelli
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences (DIMEC), University of Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy
| | - Federica Pagano
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences (DIMEC), University of Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy
| | - Cinzia Girone
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences (DIMEC), University of Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy
| | - Valerio Gelfo
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences (DIMEC), University of Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy
| | - Rikke Sofie Kuhre
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences (DIMEC), University of Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy
| | - Alessandra Morselli
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences (DIMEC), University of Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy
| | - Martina Mazzeschi
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences (DIMEC), University of Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy
| | - Michela Sgarzi
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences (DIMEC), University of Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy
- IRCCS Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy
| | - Daria Maria Filippini
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences (DIMEC), University of Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy
- IRCCS Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy
| | - Gabriele D'Uva
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences (DIMEC), University of Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy
- IRCCS Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy
| | - Mattia Lauriola
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences (DIMEC), University of Bologna, 40138 Bologna, Italy
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Watson S, LaVigne CA, Xu L, Surdez D, Cyrta J, Calderon D, Cannon MV, Kent MR, Silvius KM, Kucinski JP, Harrison EN, Murchison W, Rakheja D, Tirode F, Delattre O, Amatruda JF, Kendall GC. VGLL2-NCOA2 leverages developmental programs for pediatric sarcomagenesis. Cell Rep 2023; 42:112013. [PMID: 36656711 PMCID: PMC10054615 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2023.112013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2022] [Revised: 10/14/2022] [Accepted: 01/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Clinical sequencing efforts are rapidly identifying sarcoma gene fusions that lack functional validation. An example is the fusion of transcriptional coactivators, VGLL2-NCOA2, found in infantile rhabdomyosarcoma. To delineate VGLL2-NCOA2 tumorigenic mechanisms and identify therapeutic vulnerabilities, we implement a cross-species comparative oncology approach with zebrafish, mouse allograft, and patient samples. We find that VGLL2-NCOA2 is sufficient to generate mesenchymal tumors that display features of immature skeletal muscle and recapitulate the human disease. A subset of VGLL2-NCOA2 zebrafish tumors transcriptionally cluster with embryonic somitogenesis and identify VGLL2-NCOA2 developmental programs, including a RAS family GTPase, ARF6. In VGLL2-NCOA2 zebrafish, mouse, and patient tumors, ARF6 is highly expressed. ARF6 knockout suppresses VGLL2-NCOA2 oncogenic activity in cell culture, and, more broadly, ARF6 is overexpressed in adult and pediatric sarcomas. Our data indicate that VGLL2-NCOA2 is an oncogene that leverages developmental programs for tumorigenesis and that reactivation or persistence of ARF6 could represent a therapeutic opportunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Watson
- Institut Curie Research Center, Paris Sciences et Lettres (PSL) Research University, INSERM U830, 75005 Paris, France; Institut Curie, Paris Sciences et Lettres (PSL) Research University, Medical Oncology Department, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Collette A LaVigne
- Department of Molecular Biology, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
| | - Lin Xu
- Quantitative Biomedical Research Center, Department of Population and Data Sciences, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
| | - Didier Surdez
- Institut Curie Research Center, Paris Sciences et Lettres (PSL) Research University, INSERM U830, 75005 Paris, France; Balgrist University Hospital, Faculty of Medicine, University of Zürich (UZH), 8008 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Joanna Cyrta
- Institut Curie, Paris Sciences et Lettres (PSL) Research University, Department of Pathology, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Delia Calderon
- Center for Childhood Cancer, The Abigail Wexner Research Institute, Nationwide Children's Hospital, Columbus, OH 43205, USA; Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology Ph.D. Program, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Matthew V Cannon
- Center for Childhood Cancer, The Abigail Wexner Research Institute, Nationwide Children's Hospital, Columbus, OH 43205, USA
| | - Matthew R Kent
- Center for Childhood Cancer, The Abigail Wexner Research Institute, Nationwide Children's Hospital, Columbus, OH 43205, USA
| | - Katherine M Silvius
- Center for Childhood Cancer, The Abigail Wexner Research Institute, Nationwide Children's Hospital, Columbus, OH 43205, USA
| | - Jack P Kucinski
- Center for Childhood Cancer, The Abigail Wexner Research Institute, Nationwide Children's Hospital, Columbus, OH 43205, USA; Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology Ph.D. Program, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Emma N Harrison
- Center for Childhood Cancer, The Abigail Wexner Research Institute, Nationwide Children's Hospital, Columbus, OH 43205, USA
| | - Whitney Murchison
- Department of Pediatrics, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
| | - Dinesh Rakheja
- Department of Pediatrics, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA; Department of Pathology, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
| | - Franck Tirode
- University Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Cancer Research Center of Lyon, INSERM 1052, CNRS 5286, Centre LéonBérard, 69008 Lyon, France
| | - Olivier Delattre
- Institut Curie Research Center, Paris Sciences et Lettres (PSL) Research University, INSERM U830, 75005 Paris, France; Institut Curie, SIREDO Pediatric Center, 75005 Paris, France; Institut Curie Hospital Group, Unité de Génétique Somatique, 75005 Paris, France
| | - James F Amatruda
- Cancer and Blood Disease Institute, Children's Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90027, USA; Departments of Pediatrics and Medicine, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA.
| | - Genevieve C Kendall
- Center for Childhood Cancer, The Abigail Wexner Research Institute, Nationwide Children's Hospital, Columbus, OH 43205, USA; Department of Pediatrics, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, OH 43205, USA.
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6
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Zhang K, Liu Z, Wang Z, Zhou Z, Shao X, Hua X, Mao H, Yang H, Ren K, Chen K. Long Non-Coding RNA MDFIC-7 Promotes Chordoma Progression Through Modulating the miR-525-5p/ARF6 Axis. Front Oncol 2021; 11:743718. [PMID: 34621682 PMCID: PMC8491581 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2021.743718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2021] [Accepted: 09/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Chordoma, an extremely rare malignant tumor, remains difficult to be cured because of its strong local invasiveness and high recurrence rate. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) have been demonstrated to play multiple roles in various cancers. The purpose of this study was to investigate the modulatory function of lncRNA MDFIC-7 in chordoma and to elucidate its underlying mechanisms. Methods Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction was performed to detect the expression of lncRNA MDFIC-7 in tumor tissues and adjacent nontumorous tissues collected from 15 chordoma patients, as well as in chordoma cell lines. Gene silencing and overexpression experiments were carried out by RNA interference and lentiviral transduction. The effect of lncRNA MDFIC-7 on the proliferation of chordoma cells was evaluated by cell counting kit-8 assay, colony formation assay and xenograft tumor experiments. RNA immunoprecipitation and dual luciferase reporter assays were conducted to evaluate the binding between lncRNA MDFIC-7 and miRNA-525-5p and the interaction between miR-525-5p and the 3′ untranslated region of ADP-ribosylation factor 6 (ARF6) mRNA. The glycolytic capacity and mitochondrial function of chordoma cells were measured by the Seahorse Bioscience XF96 Extracellular Flux Analyzer. Results The expression of lncRNA MDFIC-7 was higher in chordoma tumor tissues than in adjacent non-tumor tissues. Downregulation of lncRNA MDFIC-7 reduced colony formation and cell proliferation in chordoma cells and decreased xenograft tumor growth in a nude mouse model. Moreover, lncRNA MDFIC-7 knockdown attenuated the Warburg effect in chordoma cells and xenograft tumors. LncRNA MDFIC-7 knockdown elevated miR-525-5p levels and decreased ARF6 expressions. Overexpression of ARF6 reversed the inhibitory effect of lncRNA MDFIC-7 knockdown on cell proliferation and the Warburg effect in chordoma cells and xenograft tumors. Mechanistically, lncRNA MDFIC-7, as a molecular sponge of miR-525-5p, negatively regulated miR-525-5p expression and promoted the gene expression of ARF6, a miR-525-5p target. Conclusion Our findings demonstrate that lncRNA MDFIC-7 acts as a molecular sponge to competitively bind to miR-525-5p and promote expression of ARF6. The lncRNA MDFIC-7/miR-525-5p/ARF6 axis regulates chordoma progression and the Warburg effect in chordoma, suggesting that lncRNA MDFIC-7 and miR-525-5p could be promising therapeutic targets for the treatment of chordoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Zhang
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Zixiang Liu
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Zhidong Wang
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Zhangzhe Zhou
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Xiaofeng Shao
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Xi Hua
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Haiqing Mao
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Huilin Yang
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
| | - Ke Ren
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Sichuan for Elderly Care and Health, Chengdu Medical College, Chengdu, China.,School of Laboratory Medicine/Sichuan Provincial Engineering Laboratory for Prevention and Control Technology of Veterinary Drug Residue in Animal-Origin Food, Chengdu Medical College, Chengdu, China
| | - Kangwu Chen
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, China
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Chlortetracycline, a Novel Arf Inhibitor That Decreases the Arf6-Dependent Invasive Properties of Breast Cancer Cells. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26040969. [PMID: 33673086 PMCID: PMC7917842 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26040969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2021] [Revised: 02/08/2021] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Breast cancer is a major disease for women worldwide, where mortality is associated with tumour cell dissemination to distant organs. While the number of efficient anticancer therapies increased in the past 20 years, treatments targeting the invasive properties of metastatic tumour cells are still awaited. Various studies analysing invasive breast cancer cell lines have demonstrated that Arf6 is an important player of the migratory and invasive processes. These observations make Arf6 and its regulators potential therapeutic targets. As of today, no drug effective against Arf6 has been identified, with one explanation being that the activation of Arf6 is dependent on the presence of lipid membranes that are rarely included in drug screening. To overcome this issue we have set up a fluorescence-based high throughput screening that follows overtime the activation of Arf6 at the surface of lipid membranes. Using this unique screening assay, we isolated several compounds that affect Arf6 activation, among which the antibiotic chlortetracycline (CTC) appeared to be the most promising. In this report, we describe CTC in vitro biochemical characterization and show that it blocks both the Arf6-stimulated collective migration and cell invasion in a 3D collagen I gel of the invasive breast cancer cell line MDA-MB-231. Thus, CTC appears as a promising hit to target deadly metastatic dissemination and a powerful tool to unravel the molecular mechanisms of Arf6-mediated invasive processes.
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8
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Cooperation and Interplay between EGFR Signalling and Extracellular Vesicle Biogenesis in Cancer. Cells 2020; 9:cells9122639. [PMID: 33302515 PMCID: PMC7764760 DOI: 10.3390/cells9122639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2020] [Revised: 11/30/2020] [Accepted: 12/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) takes centre stage in carcinogenesis throughout its entire cellular trafficking odyssey. When loaded in extracellular vesicles (EVs), EGFR is one of the key proteins involved in the transfer of information between parental cancer and bystander cells in the tumour microenvironment. To hijack EVs, EGFR needs to play multiple signalling roles in the life cycle of EVs. The receptor is involved in the biogenesis of specific EV subpopulations, it signals as an active cargo, and it can influence the uptake of EVs by recipient cells. EGFR regulates its own inclusion in EVs through feedback loops during disease progression and in response to challenges such as hypoxia, epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition and drugs. Here, we highlight how the spatiotemporal rules that regulate EGFR intracellular function intersect with and influence different EV biogenesis pathways and discuss key regulatory features and interactions of this interplay. We also elaborate on outstanding questions relating to EGFR-driven EV biogenesis and available methods to explore them. This mechanistic understanding will be key to unravelling the functional consequences of direct anti-EGFR targeted and indirect EGFR-impacting cancer therapies on the secretion of pro-tumoural EVs and on their effects on drug resistance and microenvironment subversion.
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9
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Lei H, Ma F, Jia R, Tan B. Effects of Arf6 downregulation on biological characteristics of human prostate cancer cells. Int Braz J Urol 2020; 46:950-961. [PMID: 32822124 PMCID: PMC7527080 DOI: 10.1590/s1677-5538.ibju.2019.0499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2019] [Accepted: 12/24/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective To evaluate the effects of Arf6 downregulation on human prostate cancer cells. Materials and Methods The effects of Arf6 downregulation on cell proliferation, migration, invasion and apoptosis were assessed by MTT, BrdU, scratch, Transwell assays and flow cytometry respectively. AKT, p-AKT, ERK1/2, p-ERK1/2 and Rac1 protein expressions were detected by Western blot. Results Downregulating Arf6 by siRNA interference suppressed the mRNA and protein expressions of Arf6. The proliferation capacities of siRNA group at 48h, 72h, and 96h were significantly lower than those of control group (P <0.05). The migration distance of siRNA group at 18h was significantly shorter than that of control group (P <0.01). The number of cells penetrating Transwell chamber membrane significantly decreased in siRNA group compared with that of control group (P <0.01). After 24h, negative control and normal control groups had similar apoptotic rates (P >0.05) which were both significantly lower than that of siRNA group (P <0.01). After Arf6 expression was downregulated, p-ERK1/2 and Rac1 protein expressions were significantly lower than those of control group (P <0.05). Conclusion Downregulating Arf6 expression can inhibit the proliferation, migration and invasion of prostate cancer cells in vitro, which may be related to ERK1/2 phosphorylation and Rac1 downregulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haiming Lei
- School of Clinical Medicine, Jiangsu Vocational College of Medicine, Yancheng, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Fujun Ma
- Department of Urology, Shengli Oilfield Central Hospital, Dongying, Shandong Province, China
| | - Renfeng Jia
- Department of Urology, Shengli Oilfield Central Hospital, Dongying, Shandong Province, China
| | - Bo Tan
- Department of Urology, Shengli Oilfield Central Hospital, Dongying, Shandong Province, China
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10
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Casalou C, Ferreira A, Barral DC. The Role of ARF Family Proteins and Their Regulators and Effectors in Cancer Progression: A Therapeutic Perspective. Front Cell Dev Biol 2020; 8:217. [PMID: 32426352 PMCID: PMC7212444 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2020.00217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2020] [Accepted: 03/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The Adenosine diphosphate-Ribosylation Factor (ARF) family belongs to the RAS superfamily of small GTPases and is involved in a wide variety of physiological processes, such as cell proliferation, motility and differentiation by regulating membrane traffic and associating with the cytoskeleton. Like other members of the RAS superfamily, ARF family proteins are activated by Guanine nucleotide Exchange Factors (GEFs) and inactivated by GTPase-Activating Proteins (GAPs). When active, they bind effectors, which mediate downstream functions. Several studies have reported that cancer cells are able to subvert membrane traffic regulators to enhance migration and invasion. Indeed, members of the ARF family, including ARF-Like (ARL) proteins have been implicated in tumorigenesis and progression of several types of cancer. Here, we review the role of ARF family members, their GEFs/GAPs and effectors in tumorigenesis and cancer progression, highlighting the ones that can have a pro-oncogenic behavior or function as tumor suppressors. Moreover, we propose possible mechanisms and approaches to target these proteins, toward the development of novel therapeutic strategies to impair tumor progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Casalou
- CEDOC, NOVA Medical School, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Andreia Ferreira
- CEDOC, NOVA Medical School, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Duarte C Barral
- CEDOC, NOVA Medical School, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
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11
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D'Souza RS, Lim JY, Turgut A, Servage K, Zhang J, Orth K, Sosale NG, Lazzara MJ, Allegood J, Casanova JE. Calcium-stimulated disassembly of focal adhesions mediated by an ORP3/IQSec1 complex. eLife 2020; 9:54113. [PMID: 32234213 PMCID: PMC7159923 DOI: 10.7554/elife.54113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2019] [Accepted: 03/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Coordinated assembly and disassembly of integrin-mediated focal adhesions (FAs) is essential for cell migration. Many studies have shown that FA disassembly requires Ca2+ influx, however our understanding of this process remains incomplete. Here, we show that Ca2+ influx via STIM1/Orai1 calcium channels, which cluster near FAs, leads to activation of the GTPase Arf5 via the Ca2+-activated GEF IQSec1, and that both IQSec1 and Arf5 activation are essential for adhesion disassembly. We further show that IQSec1 forms a complex with the lipid transfer protein ORP3, and that Ca2+ influx triggers PKC-dependent translocation of this complex to ER/plasma membrane (PM) contact sites adjacent to FAs. In addition to allosterically activating IQSec1, ORP3 also extracts PI4P from the PM, in exchange for phosphatidylcholine. ORP3-mediated lipid exchange is also important for FA turnover. Together, these findings identify a new pathway that links calcium influx to FA turnover during cell migration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan S D'Souza
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, United States
| | - Jun Y Lim
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, United States
| | - Alper Turgut
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, United States
| | - Kelly Servage
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Texas Southwest Medical Center, Dallas, United States.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Dallas, United States
| | - Junmei Zhang
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, United States
| | - Kim Orth
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Texas Southwest Medical Center, Dallas, United States.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Dallas, United States
| | - Nisha G Sosale
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, United States
| | - Matthew J Lazzara
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, United States
| | - Jeremy Allegood
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, United States
| | - James E Casanova
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, United States
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12
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Crupi MJF, Maritan SM, Reyes-Alvarez E, Lian EY, Hyndman BD, Rekab AN, Moodley S, Antonescu CN, Mulligan LM. GGA3-mediated recycling of the RET receptor tyrosine kinase contributes to cell migration and invasion. Oncogene 2019; 39:1361-1377. [DOI: 10.1038/s41388-019-1068-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2019] [Revised: 10/04/2019] [Accepted: 10/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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13
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Qiu J, Tao L, Wei Q, Zhang P. Knockdown of Arf6 increases drug sensitivity and inhibits proliferation, migration and invasion in gastric cancer SGC-7901 cells. Oncol Lett 2017; 15:2147-2152. [PMID: 29434918 PMCID: PMC5777091 DOI: 10.3892/ol.2017.7558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2017] [Accepted: 11/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
ADP-ribosylation factor 6 (Arf6), a member of the ADP-ribosylation factor family, is overexpressed in different types of cancer cell and promotes invasion, metastasis and drug resistance. However, the potential functions of Arf6 in gastric cancer (GC), and the molecular mechanism underlying these functions, remain to be fully elucidated. In the present study, the results demonstrated that in vitro knockdown of Arf6 decreased proliferation, colony formation, migration and invasion in SGC-7901 cells. Arf6 knockdown also markedly decreased the activity of the extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) signaling pathway. Furthermore, knockdown of Arf6 was associated with elevated chemosensitivity of SGC-7901 cells to 5-fluorouracil through inactivation of the ERK1/2 signaling pathway. Taken together, these results suggest that Arf6 is involved in regulating proliferation, migration, invasion and drug resistance in GC, and may be a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of GC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junlan Qiu
- Department of General Surgery, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital Clinical College, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210008, P.R. China
| | - Liang Tao
- Department of General Surgery, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital Clinical College, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210008, P.R. China
| | - Qiang Wei
- Nanjing Emergency Medical Center, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210003, P.R. China
| | - Pingyang Zhang
- Department of Cardiovascular Ultrasound, Nanjing First Hospital Affiliated to Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210006, P.R. China
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14
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Association between epidermal growth factor receptor amplification and ADP-ribosylation factor 1 methylation in human glioblastoma. Cell Oncol (Dordr) 2017. [PMID: 28631186 DOI: 10.1007/s13402-017-0329-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Glioblastoma (GB) is the most frequent and most malignant primary brain tumor in adults. Previously, it has been found that both genetic and epigenetic factors may play critical roles in its etiology and prognosis. In addition, it has been found that the epidermal growth factor receptor gene (EGFR) is frequently over-expressed and amplified in primary GBs. Here, we assessed the promoter methylation status of 10 genes relevant to GB and explored associations between these findings and the EGFR gene amplification status. METHODS Tumor samples were obtained from 36 patients with primary GBs. In addition, 6 control specimens were included from patients who were operated for diseases other than brain tumors. The amplification status of the EGFR gene, and its deletion mutant EGFRvIII, were evaluated using FISH and MLPA, respectively. The IDH1/2 gene mutation status was verified using Sanger sequencing. A commercial DNA methylation kit was used to assess the promoter methylation status of 10 pre-selected genes. Metabolic profiles were measured using HR-MAS NMR spectroscopy. The EGFR and ARF1 mRNA expression levels were quantified using qRT-PCR. RESULTS Of the 10 genes analyzed, we found that only ARF1 promoter hypermethylation was significantly associated with EGFR gene amplification. ARF1 is a GTPase that is involved in vesicle trafficking and the Golgi apparatus. Subsequent tumor metabolism measurements revealed a positive association between EGFR amplification and different membrane precursors and methyl-donor metabolites. Finally, we found that EGFR gene amplifications were associated with distinct tumor infiltration patterns, thus representing a putative novel functional association between EGFR gene amplification and ARF1 gene promoter methylation in GB. CONCLUSIONS The results reported here provide a basis for a new hypotheses connecting EGFR gene amplification in GB cells with ARF1 gene promoter methylation, vesicle trafficking, membrane turnover and tumor metabolism. The mechanism(s) underlying these connections and their functional consequences remain to be established.
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15
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Li R, Peng C, Zhang X, Wu Y, Pan S, Xiao Y. Roles of Arf6 in cancer cell invasion, metastasis and proliferation. Life Sci 2017. [PMID: 28625359 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2017.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
ADP-ribosylation factor 6 (Arf6), a member of small GTPases ADP-ribosylation factor (Arf) family, expresses widely in mammalian cells and mainly regulates the functions of membrane traffic and actin remodeling. Current studies indicated that the activation and high expression of Arf6 protein may be significantly correlated with the invasion and metastasis of several tumors, such as breast cancer, pancreatic cancer, lung cancer, etc. Meanwhile, the ability of tumor invasion and metastasis can be suppressed when Arf6 activity is blocked by the inhibitors or small-interfering RNAs of Arf6. To explore the precisely potential mechanisms between Arf6 and the process of tumor invasion, metastasis and proliferation, we concludes the functions and potential signaling pathways of Arf6 in tumor cells and provides an overview about clinical prospects of Arf6 in the screening, diagnosis, treatment and evaluation of prognosis of neoplasms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Li
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Basic Medical Science, Jilin University, Changchun, China; Department of Radiology, School of Public Health, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Cheng Peng
- Department of Hand and Foot Surgery, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Xianzhe Zhang
- School of Clinical Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Yuewei Wu
- School of Clinical Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Shida Pan
- School of Clinical Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Yechen Xiao
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Basic Medical Science, Jilin University, Changchun, China.
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16
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Grossmann AH, Zhao H, Jenkins N, Zhu W, Richards JR, Yoo JH, Winter JM, Rich B, Mleynek TM, Li DY, Odelberg SJ. The small GTPase ARF6 regulates protein trafficking to control cellular function during development and in disease. Small GTPases 2016; 10:1-12. [PMID: 28001501 DOI: 10.1080/21541248.2016.1259710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
The activation of the small GTPase ARF6 has been implicated in promoting several pathological processes related to vascular instability and tumor formation, growth, and metastasis. ARF6 also plays a vital role during embryonic development. Recent studies have suggested that ARF6 carries out these disparate functions primarily by controlling protein trafficking within the cell. ARF6 helps direct proteins to intracellular or extracellular locations where they function in normal cellular responses during development and in pathological processes later in life. This transport of proteins is accomplished through a variety of mechanisms, including endocytosis and recycling, microvesicle release, and as yet uncharacterized processes. This Commentary will explore the functions of ARF6, while focusing on the role of this small GTPase in development and postnatal physiology, regulating barrier function and diseases associated with its loss, and tumor formation, growth, and metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allie H Grossmann
- a Department of Medicine , Program in Molecular Medicine, University of Utah , Salt Lake City , UT , USA.,b Department of Pathology , University of Utah , Salt Lake City , UT , USA.,c ARUP Laboratories, University of Utah , Salt Lake City , UT , USA
| | - Helong Zhao
- a Department of Medicine , Program in Molecular Medicine, University of Utah , Salt Lake City , UT , USA
| | - Noah Jenkins
- a Department of Medicine , Program in Molecular Medicine, University of Utah , Salt Lake City , UT , USA
| | - Weiquan Zhu
- a Department of Medicine , Program in Molecular Medicine, University of Utah , Salt Lake City , UT , USA.,d Department of Medicine , Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Utah , Salt Lake City , UT , USA
| | - Jackson R Richards
- a Department of Medicine , Program in Molecular Medicine, University of Utah , Salt Lake City , UT , USA.,e Department of Oncological Sciences , University of Utah , Salt Lake City , UT , USA
| | - Jae Hyuk Yoo
- a Department of Medicine , Program in Molecular Medicine, University of Utah , Salt Lake City , UT , USA.,e Department of Oncological Sciences , University of Utah , Salt Lake City , UT , USA
| | - Jacob M Winter
- a Department of Medicine , Program in Molecular Medicine, University of Utah , Salt Lake City , UT , USA
| | - Bianca Rich
- a Department of Medicine , Program in Molecular Medicine, University of Utah , Salt Lake City , UT , USA
| | - Tara M Mleynek
- a Department of Medicine , Program in Molecular Medicine, University of Utah , Salt Lake City , UT , USA
| | - Dean Y Li
- a Department of Medicine , Program in Molecular Medicine, University of Utah , Salt Lake City , UT , USA.,d Department of Medicine , Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Utah , Salt Lake City , UT , USA.,e Department of Oncological Sciences , University of Utah , Salt Lake City , UT , USA.,f Department of Human Genetics , University of Utah , Salt Lake City , UT , USA.,g Sichuan Provincial Key Laboratory for Human Disease Gene Study , Sichuan Provincial People's Hospital, Chinese Academy of Sciences , Chengdu , China.,h Department of Cardiology , VA Salt Lake City Health Care System , Salt Lake City , UT , USA.,i Navigen Inc. , Salt Lake City , UT , USA
| | - Shannon J Odelberg
- a Department of Medicine , Program in Molecular Medicine, University of Utah , Salt Lake City , UT , USA.,d Department of Medicine , Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Utah , Salt Lake City , UT , USA.,j Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy , University of Utah , Salt Lake City , UT , USA
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17
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Abstract
Members of the ADP-ribosylation factor (Arf) family of small GTP-binding (G) proteins regulate several aspects of membrane trafficking, such as vesicle budding, tethering and cytoskeleton organization. Arf family members, including Arf-like (Arl) proteins have been implicated in several essential cellular functions, like cell spreading and migration. These functions are used by cancer cells to disseminate and invade the tissues surrounding the primary tumor, leading to the formation of metastases. Indeed, Arf and Arl proteins, as well as their guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs) and GTPase-activating proteins (GAPs) have been found to be abnormally expressed in different cancer cell types and human cancers. Here, we review the current evidence supporting the involvement of Arf family proteins and their GEFs and GAPs in cancer progression, focusing on 3 different mechanisms: cell-cell adhesion, integrin internalization and recycling, and actin cytoskeleton remodeling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Casalou
- a CEDOC, NOVA Medical School - Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa , Lisbon , Portugal
| | - Alexandra Faustino
- a CEDOC, NOVA Medical School - Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa , Lisbon , Portugal.,b ProRegeM PhD Program, NOVA Medical School - Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa , Lisbon , Portugal
| | - Duarte C Barral
- a CEDOC, NOVA Medical School - Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa , Lisbon , Portugal
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18
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Hongu T, Yamauchi Y, Funakoshi Y, Katagiri N, Ohbayashi N, Kanaho Y. Pathological functions of the small GTPase Arf6 in cancer progression: Tumor angiogenesis and metastasis. Small GTPases 2016; 7:47-53. [PMID: 26909552 PMCID: PMC4905277 DOI: 10.1080/21541248.2016.1154640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Although several lines of evidence have shown that the small GTPase ADP-ribosylation factor 6 (Arf6) plays pivotal roles in cancer progression of several types of cancers, little is known about the functions of Arf6 in tumor microenvironment. We demonstrated that Arf6 in vascular endothelial cells (VECs) plays a crucial role in tumor angiogenesis and growth using endothelial cell-specific Arf6 conditional knockout mice into which B16 melanoma and Lewis lung carcinoma cells were implanted. It was also found that Arf6 in VECs positively regulates hepatocyte growth factor (HGF)-induced β1 integrin recycling, which is a critical event for tumor angiogenesis by promoting cell migration. Importantly, pharmacological inhibition of HGF-induced Arf6 activation significantly suppresses tumor angiogenesis and growth in mice, suggesting that Arf6 signaling would be a potential target for anti-angiogenic therapy. In this manuscript, we summarize the multiple roles of Arf6 in cancer progression, particularly in cancer cell invasion/metastasis and our recent findings on tumor angiogenesis, and discuss a possible approach to develop innovative anti-cancer drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tsunaki Hongu
- a Department of Physiological Chemistry , Faculty of Medicine and Graduate School of Comprehensive Human Sciences, University of Tsukuba , Tsukuba , Japan
| | - Yohei Yamauchi
- a Department of Physiological Chemistry , Faculty of Medicine and Graduate School of Comprehensive Human Sciences, University of Tsukuba , Tsukuba , Japan
| | - Yuji Funakoshi
- a Department of Physiological Chemistry , Faculty of Medicine and Graduate School of Comprehensive Human Sciences, University of Tsukuba , Tsukuba , Japan
| | - Naohiro Katagiri
- a Department of Physiological Chemistry , Faculty of Medicine and Graduate School of Comprehensive Human Sciences, University of Tsukuba , Tsukuba , Japan
| | - Norihiko Ohbayashi
- a Department of Physiological Chemistry , Faculty of Medicine and Graduate School of Comprehensive Human Sciences, University of Tsukuba , Tsukuba , Japan
| | - Yasunori Kanaho
- a Department of Physiological Chemistry , Faculty of Medicine and Graduate School of Comprehensive Human Sciences, University of Tsukuba , Tsukuba , Japan
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