Smoking-Related Home Oxygen Burn Injuries: Continued Cause for Alarm

Thoracic Society of Australia and New Zealand clinical practice guideline on adult home oxygen therapy

This Thoracic Society of Australia and New Zealand Guideline on the provision of home oxygen therapy in adults updates a previous Guideline from 2015. The Guideline is based upon a systematic review and meta-analysis of literature to September 2022 and the strength of recommendations is based on GRADE methodology. Long-term oxygen therapy (LTOT) is recommended for its mortality benefit for patients with COPD and other chronic respiratory diseases who have consistent evidence of significant hypoxaemia at rest (PaO2 ≤ 55 mm Hg or PaO2 ≤59 mm Hg in the presence of hypoxaemic sequalae) while in a stable state. Evidence does not support the use of LTOT for patients with COPD who have moderate hypoxaemia or isolated nocturnal hypoxaemia. In the absence of hypoxaemia, there is no evidence that oxygen provides greater palliation of breathlessness than air. Evidence does not support the use of supplemental oxygen therapy during pulmonary rehabilitation in those with COPD and exertional desaturation but normal resting arterial blood gases. Both positive and negative effects of LTOT have been described, including on quality of life. Education about how and when to use oxygen therapy in order to maximize its benefits, including the use of different delivery devices, expectations and limitations of therapy and information about hazards and risks associated with its use are key when embarking upon this treatment.

The long-term intercorrelation between post-burn pain, anxiety, and depression: a post hoc analysis of the "RE-ENERGIZE" double-blind, randomized, multicenter placebo-controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Despite the growing prevalence of burn survivors, a gap persists in our understanding of the correlation between acute burn trauma and the long-term impact on psychosocial health. This study set out to investigate the prevalence of long-term pain and symptoms of anxiety and depression in survivors of extensive burns, comparing this to the general population, and identify injury and demographic-related factors predisposing individuals to psychosocial compromise.

METHODS

RE-ENERGIZE was an international, double-blinded, randomized-controlled trial that enrolled 1200 patients with partial- or full-thickness burns that required surgical treatment. For the post hoc analysis, we excluded participants who did not complete the Short Form Health Survey (SF-36) questionnaire. Normative data were taken from the 2021 National Health Interview Survey dataset. Propensity score matching was performed using the nearest-neighbor 1-to-1 method, and the two cohorts were compared in terms of chronic pain, and symptoms of anxiety and depression. A multivariable analysis was performed on the burns cohort to identify factors predicting post-discharge pain and symptoms of anxiety and depression.

RESULTS

A total of 600 burn patients and 26,666 general population adults were included in this study. Following propensity score matching, both groups comprised 478 participants each, who were predominately male, white, overweight and between 20 and 60 years old. Compared to the general population, burn patients were significantly more likely to report the presence of moderate and a lot of pain (p = 0.002). Symptoms of anxiety were significantly higher in the burn population in two of four levels (most of the time; some of the time; p < 0.0001 for both). Responders in the burn population were significantly less likely to report the absence of depressive symptoms (p < 0.0001). Burn patients were also significantly more likely to report that their mental health affects their social life. TBSA, history of depression, and female sex were identified as independently associated factors for pain, anxiety, and depressive symptoms. The presence of chronic pain and anxiety symptoms independently predicted for symptoms of depression.

CONCLUSIONS

Analyzing the largest multicenter cohort of patients with extensive burns, we find that burn injury is associated with chronic pain, and symptoms of anxiety and depression. In addition, TBSA-burned and history of depression directly correlate with the prevalence of chronic pain, and symptoms of anxiety and depression. Finally, pain, and symptoms of anxiety and depression are interrelated and may have interactive effects on the process of recovery following burn injury. Burn patients would, therefore, benefit from a multidisciplinary team approach with early mobilization of pain and mental health experts, in order to promptly prevent the development of psychosocial challenges and their consequences.

Burn Injury From Smoking Electronic Cigarettes While on Supplemental Oxygen

Many reports pertaining to burns from e-cigarette battery explosions exist, as do injuries from smoking conventional cigarettes while on home-oxygen therapy. However, literature regarding burn injuries from e-cigarettes while on oxygen therapy is limited. The heating coil of the device can rise to temperatures that facilitates ignition of oxygen. The purpose of this study is to describe and characterize this novel and under-reported mechanism of injury. This study was a descriptive review of 2013-2016 National Burn Repository (NBR) data, with a query for "oxygen," "O2," "electronic cigarettes," and various permutations/abbreviations/misspellings. Demographics, injury characteristics, and outcomes were reported. Also, a Google search for lay-press articles and a PubMed/Scopus search using similar terms was conducted to find literature. Of approximately 60,000 NBR entries, 8 records of injury while smoking e-cigarettes on oxygen were found. Patients were predominantly male, 63 ± 9 years old, with 3.4% ± 4 TBSA burns, and LOS of 5.8 ± 7 days (an LOS O/E ratio of 1.5). Two patients sustained full-thickness burns (0.5% and 11% TBSA). Three were intubated, with mean of 3.33 ventilator-days. Most injuries occurred at home (88%). All patients survived. A google search revealed five lay-press articles. Only three partially relevant scientific articles were found to only mention the phenomenon, without granular data. Although uncommon, smoking e-cigarettes on supplemental oxygen can result in injury without a lithium-ion battery explosion. Limitations in the database may have resulted in underestimation of injuries. A paucity of relevant literature exists, necessitating more research. Patients who receive home-O2 should be warned about this potential danger.

Outcomes of COPD Patients with Flame Burn and Inhalation Injuries at a Single Institution

The presence of any comorbid condition may lead to worse outcomes after burn injury. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a condition with significant morbidity and mortality. In 2018, about 16 million adults in the United States reported a diagnosis of COPD based on data from the American Lung Association. The objective of this study was to explore the outcomes of patients with COPD admitted to our Burn Center with flame burns and/or inhalation injury. Patients were identified using our Institutional Burn Center registry and linked to the clinical and administrative data. All adult flame-injured and/or inhalation injury-only patients admitted to our burn center between July 1, 2011 and June 30, 2020 were included. Demographics, length of stay, burn, and patient characteristics and outcomes, including mortality, were evaluated. Four thousand three hundred ninety-seven patients were included in the study. Patients were divided into two populations, those with COPD (n = 515) and those without a diagnosis of COPD (n = 3882). Patients with COPD were older, more likely to be white and male, and had smaller sized burns, p < .001. Patients with COPD were more likely to be smokers and have comorbid conditions. There was no statistically significant difference between the incidence of inhalation injury, lengths of stay, or number of ventilator days. Burn size and inhalation injury increased mortality risk regardless of COPD severity, as did age among those not on home oxygen. More studies are needed to determine the genomic or proteomic changes in patients with COPD that lead to worse outcomes after flame injury, and/or inhalation injury alone.

2022 Brazilian Thoracic Association recommendations for long-term home oxygen therapy

Some chronic respiratory diseases can cause hypoxemia and, in such cases, long-term home oxygen therapy (LTOT) is indicated as a treatment option primarily to improve patient quality of life and life expectancy. Home oxygen has been used for more than 70 years, and support for LTOT is based on two studies from the 1980s that demonstrated that oxygen use improves survival in patients with COPD. There is evidence that LTOT has other beneficial effects such as improved cognitive function, improved exercise capacity, and reduced hospitalizations. LTOT is indicated in other respiratory diseases that cause hypoxemia, on the basis of the same criteria as those used for COPD. There has been an increase in the use of LTOT, probably because of increased life expectancy and a higher prevalence of chronic respiratory diseases, as well as greater availability of LTOT in the health care system. The first Brazilian Thoracic Association consensus statement on LTOT was published in 2000. Twenty-two years later, we present this updated version. This document is a nonsystematic review of the literature, conducted by pulmonologists who evaluated scientific evidence and international guidelines on LTOT in the various diseases that cause hypoxemia and in specific situations (i.e., exercise, sleep, and air travel). These recommendations, produced with a view to clinical practice, contain several charts with information on indications for LTOT, oxygen sources, accessories, strategies for improved efficiency and effectiveness, and recommendations for the safe use of LTOT, as well as a LTOT prescribing model.

Outcomes of Patients with Burns Associated with Home Oxygen Therapy: An Institutional Retrospective Review

Home oxygen therapy (HOT) burns carry high morbidity and mortality. Many patients are active smokers, which is the most frequent cause of oxygen ignition. We conducted a retrospective review at our institution to characterize demographics and outcomes in this patient population. An IRB-approved single-institution retrospective review was conducted for home oxygen therapy burn patients between July 2016 and January 2021. Demographic and clinical outcome data were compared between groups. We identified 100 patients with oxygen therapy burns. Mean age was 66.6 years with a male to female ratio of 1.3:1 and median burn surface area of 1%. In these patients, 97% were on oxygen for COPD and smoking caused 83% of burns. Thirteen were discharged from the emergency department, 35 observed for less than 24 hours, and 52 admitted. For admitted patients, 69.2% were admitted to the ICU, 37% required intubation, and 11.5% required debridement and grafting. Inhalational injury was found in 26.9% of patients, 3.9% underwent tracheostomy, and 17.3% experienced hospital complications. In-hospital mortality was 9.6% and 7.7% were discharged to hospice. 13.5% required readmission within 30 days. Admitted patients had significantly higher rates of admission to the ICU, intubation, and inhalational injury compared to those that were not admitted (p &lt; .01). Most HOT-related burns are caused by smoking and can result in significant morbidity and mortality. Efforts to educate and encourage smoking cessation with more judicious HOT allocation would assist in preventing these unnecessary highly morbid injuries.

Care of the Critically Injured Burn Patient

Care of the critically injured burn patient presents unique challenges to the intensivist. Certified burn centers are rare and geographically sparse, necessitating that much of the initial management of patients with severe burn injuries must happen in the pre-burn center setting.1 Severe burn injuries often lead to a wide range of complications that extend beyond the loss of skin integrity and require specialized care. As such, medical intensivists are often called upon to stabilize these critically injured patients. This focused review outlines the clinical care of these medically complex patients, including airway management, post-burn complications, volume resuscitation, nutrition, and end-of-life care.

Burn Injuries in People Who Used Drug, 2009-2017: A Case-Control Study in Shiraz, Southern Iran

BACKGROUND

Burn injury is a critical health issue, which is associated with several morbidities and mortalities. Substance abuse, which is an important public health problem in Iran, can affect burn injury outcomes and etiologies in victims. This study was aimed to evaluate different aspects of burn injuries in people who used drug (PWUD) in two referral centers in the south of Iran.

METHODS

This Case-Control Study was conducted on burn victims referred to Amir-al Momenin Hospital and Ghotb-al-din Hospital from 2009 to 2017. Patients with a history of drug consumption were selected from the database and compared to randomly selected burn victims with no history of drug use. Demographics, burn etiology, underlying disease, total body surface area, hospitalization duration, and also the outcomes were collected and recorded in both groups. Data analysis was done by SPSS software.

RESULTS

A total of 5,912 inpatients were included in this study, which 2,397 of them (40.54%) were female. The mean age of the patients was 26.12 ± 19.18. Drug history was positive in 659 patients (11.15%). Familial issues and mental disorders were significantly higher in the PWUD group compared to the control group (P<0.001). Explosion etiology was significantly higher in the PWUD group (P<0.001). Psychiatric disorders (P<0.001), total body surface area (P=0.023), and hospital stay (P<0.001) were significantly higher in PWUD; however, the mortality rate had no statistically significant differences between the groups (P=0.583).

CONCLUSION

Substance abuse is a risk factor in burn victims, which can affect burn etiology and burn-related morbidities.

Nexobrid Treatment for Burn Injuries in Patients With Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease and Home Oxygen Therapy

There is an increased risk for burn injuries associated with home oxygen therapy of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease since 10 to 50 % of these patients continue to smoke. Enzymatic eschar removal of facial burns is gaining popularity but intubation of this specific patient group often leads to prolonged weaning and can require tracheostomy. This study dealt with the question if enzymatic debridement in these patients can also be performed in analgosedation. A selective review of the literature regarding burn trauma associated with home oxygen use in patients with COPD was performed, as well as a retrospective analysis of all patients with burn injuries associated with home oxygen use and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease that were admitted to the study clinic. In the literature 1746 patients with burns associated with home oxygen use are described, but none of them received enzymatic debridement. In this study seventeen patients were included. All three patients in this study with facial full-thickness burn injuries received enzymatic debridement. The mortality rate in this cohort was 17.6 % (3/17). Up to date, there is limited experience performing regional anesthesia debridement in patients with COPD. This is the first manuscript describing the use of enzymatic debridement in patients with COPD and home oxygen therapy. We could confirm other studies that intubation of these patients leads to prolonged ventilation hours and increases the probability for poor prognosis. Therefore, we described the treatment of enzymatic debridement in analgosedation without intubation.

Prenatal prediction of neonatal haemodynamic adaptation after maternal hyperoxygenation

Abstract

The reactivity of the pulmonary vascular bed to the administration of oxygen is well established in the post-natal circulation. The vasoreactivity demonstrated by the fetal pulmonary artery Doppler waveform in response to maternal hyperoxia has been investigated. We sought to investigate the relationship between the reactivity of the fetal pulmonary arteries to hyperoxia and subsequent neonatal cardiac function in the early newborn period.

Methods

This explorative study with convenience sampling measured pulsatility index (PI), resistance index (RI), acceleration time (AT), and ejection time (ET) from the fetal distal branch pulmonary artery (PA) at baseline and following maternal hyperoxygenation (MH). Oxygen was administered for 10 min at a rate of 12 L/min via a partial non-rebreather mask. A neonatal functional echocardiogram was performed within the first 24 h of life to assess ejection fraction (EF), left ventricular output (LVO), and neonatal pulmonary artery AT (nPAAT). This study was conducted in the Rotunda Hospital, Dublin, Ireland.

Results

Forty-six women with a singleton pregnancy greater than or equal to 31 weeks’ gestational age were prospectively recruited to the study. The median gestational age was 35 weeks. There was a decrease in fetal PAPI and PARI following MH and an increase in fetal PAAT, leading to an increase in PA AT:ET. Fetuses that responded to hyperoxygenation were more likely to have a higher LVO (135 ± 25 mL/kg/min vs 111 ± 21 mL/kg/min, p < 0.01) and EF (54 ± 9% vs 47 ± 7%,p = 0.03) in the early newborn period than those that did not respond to MH prenatally. These findings were not dependent on left ventricular size or mitral valve (MV) annular diameter but were related to an increased MV inflow. There was no difference in nPAAT.

Conclusion

These findings indicate a reduction in fetal pulmonary vascular resistance (PVR) and an increase in pulmonary blood flow and left atrial return following MH. The fetal response to hyperoxia reflected an optimal adaptation to postnatal life with rapid reduction in PVR increasing measured cardiac output.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12884-020-03403-y.

Can sonographic assessment of pulmonary vascular reactivity following maternal hyperoxygenation predict neonatal pulmonary hypertension? (HOTPOT study protocol)

Background

Persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn (PPHN) is a condition that occurs in 0.5–7 per 1000 live births and can result in significant cardiovascular instability in the newborn. It occurs when there is a failure of the normal circulatory transition in the early newborn period. Recent studies have shown that fetal pulmonary vasculature reacts to maternal hyperoxygenation (MH). The aim of the study is to assess if the in-utero response to MH can predict pulmonary hypertension in the early newborn period.

Methods

We will perform a prospective cohort study. It will evaluate the use of fetal echocardiographic Doppler assessment of the pulmonary vasculature prior to and following MH to predict fetuses that may develop pulmonary hypertension in the neonatal period. The study will be undertaken in the Rotunda Hospital, Dublin, Ireland. A fetal ultrasound and echocardiography will be performed on fetuses in the third trimester. Blood flow velocity waveforms will be recorded during periods of fetal quiescence. Pulsatility index (PI), Resistance index (RI), Peak systolic (PSV) and end diastolic velocity (EDV), time-averaged velocity (TAV), acceleration time (AT), and ejection time (ET) will be measured within the fetal distal pulmonary artery (PA). The acceleration-to-ejection time ratio (AT: ET) will be used to assess pulmonary vascular resistance (PVR). Doppler measurements will be taken at baseline and repeated immediately following MH for 10 min (O2 100% v/v inhalational gas) at a rate of 12L/min via a partial non-rebreather mask. Doppler waveform measurements from the umbilical artery (UAD), middle cerebral artery (MCA) ductus arteriosus (DA), aortic isthmus (AoI) and ductus venosus (DV) will also be obtained. After birth, a comprehensive neonatal functional echocardiogram will be performed within the first 24 hours of life.

Discussion

This study proposes to validate methods described to date in investigating the fetal pulmonary vascular response to MH, with expansion of the study subjects to include fetuses at risk of PPHN. Evaluation of the different at-risk subgroups will be informative in relation to the fetal circulatory adaptation close to term. Prediction of neonatal pulmonary hypertension may help guide the pharmacological and neonatal ICU strategies that optimise postnatal survival.

Mortality From Burns Sustained on Home Oxygen Therapy Exceeds Predicted Mortality

The Boston Criteria and the Abbreviated Burn Severity Index are two widely accepted models for predicting mortality in burn patients. We aimed to elucidate whether these models are able to predict the risk of mortality in patients who sustain burns while smoking on home oxygen given their clinical fragility. We conducted a retrospective chart review of 48 patients admitted to our burn center from November 2013 to September 2017 who sustained a burn while smoking on home oxygen. Yearlong mortality was the primary outcome of the investigation; secondary outcomes included discharge to facility, length of stay, and need for tracheostomy. We calculated the expected mortality rate for each patient based on Boston Criteria and Abbreviated Burn Severity Index and compared the mortality rate observed in our cohort. Patients in our cohort suffered a 54% mortality rate within a year of injury, compared to a 23.5% mortality predicted by Boston Criteria, which was found to be statistically significant by chi-square analysis (P &lt; .05). Abbreviated Burn Severity Index predicted mortality was 19.7%. While the absolute value of the difference in mortality was greater, this was not significant on chi-square analysis due to sample size. Our secondary outcomes revealed 42% discharge to facility, the average length of stay of 6.2 days, and 6.25% required tracheostomy. Patients whose burns are attributable to smoking on home oxygen may have an increased risk of mortality than prognostication models would suggest. This bears significant clinical impact, particularly regarding family and provider decision making in pursuing aggressive management.

Substance use and inhalation injury in adult burn patients: retrospective study of the impact on outcomes

Background

Substance use, alcohol use, and smoking use have all been associated with burn injury. Few studies have investigated associations with substances, alcohol, smoking, inhalational only burns, and patient outcomes. The purpose of the study was to identify risk factors for pulmonary failure in patients suffering inhalation injury, focusing on the impact of substance, alcohol, and cigarette use.

Methods

This is a single-center retrospective analysis of 115 patients admitted to the Johns Hopkins Bayview Burn Center with inhalational injury from January 1, 2010, through September 30, 2018. Patients were excluded if they were under the age of 18 years or had burn involvement of the skin > 5%. Primary outcome variables measured were if patients were intubated, length of total time intubated, substance use, alcohol use, and smoking use. Secondary outcome variables measured were types of substances used (amphetamines, barbiturates, benzodiazepines, cannabinoids, cocaine, methadone, codeine/morphine), total number of substances used, intensive care unit (ICU) length of stay (LOS), hospital LOS, secondary complications, and patient mortality. Analysis was performed with Fisher’s exact test and the Mann-Whitney U test. A sub-group analysis for each substance, alcohol, smoking, and control sub-group was compared to its respective sub-group without substance, alcohol, smoking, and control within the no intubation and intubation group. A sub-group analysis of substance use, alcohol use, smoking use, and control was further analyzed with binomial logistic regression within the intubation group.

Results

Following inhalation injury, 50/115 (43%) patients required intubation. Forty-two of the 50 (84%) patients intubated had substance use (p < 0.001). Thirty-one of the 50 (62%) patients intubated had history of smoking (p = 0.038). Among the specific substances used, 26/50 (52%) patients intubated were using benzodiazepines (p < 0.001) and 7/50 (14%) patients were using cocaine (p = 0.022). The lengths of intubation, ICU LOS, and hospital LOS with no substance use were shorter than with substance use (p < 0.001). Following the adjusted sub-group analysis, patients with substance use (odds ratio (OR) 6.4, 95% confidence interval (CI) [2.5–16.3]; p < 0.001) and smoking use (OR 2.5, 95% CI [1.2–5.1]; p = 0.013) were more likely to be intubated on admission than those without substance or smoking use.

Conclusions

In patients admitted with an inhalational injury with less than or equal to 5% external burns, the presence of a substance and smoking use on admission provides a further risk of intubation and respiratory compromise. Substance use on admission poses a greater risk of longer intubation, ICU LOS, and hospital LOS. A higher potential for substance use should be suspected in this patient population with prompt treatment.

The effect of preexisting respiratory co-morbidities on burn outcomes

INTRODUCTION

Burns cause physiologic changes in multiple organ systems in the body. Burn mortality is usually attributable to pulmonary complications, which can occur in up to 41% of patients admitted to the hospital after burn. Patients with preexisting comorbidities such as chronic lung diseases may be more susceptible. We therefore sought to examine the impact of preexisting respiratory disease on burn outcomes.

METHODS

A retrospective analysis of patients admitted to a regional burn center from 2002-2012. Independent variables analyzed included basic demographics, burn mechanism, presence of inhalation injury, TBSA, pre-existing comorbidities, smoker status, length of hospital stay, and days of mechanical ventilation. Bivariate analysis was performed and Cox regression modeling using significant variables was utilized to estimate hazard of progression to mechanical ventilation and mortality.

RESULTS

There were a total of 7640 patients over the study period. Overall survival rate was 96%. 8% (n=672) had a preexisting respiratory disease. Chronic lung disease patients had a higher mortality rate (7%) compared to those without lung disease (4%, p<0.01). The adjusted Cox regression model to estimate the hazard of progression to mechanical ventilation in patients with respiratory disease was 21% higher compared to those without respiratory disease (HR=1.21, 95% CI=1.01-1.44). The hazard of progression to mortality is 56% higher (HR=1.56, 95% CI=1.10-2.19) for patients with pre-existing respiratory disease compared to those without respiratory disease after controlling for patient demographics and injury characteristics.

CONCLUSION

Preexisting chronic respiratory disease significantly increases the hazard of progression to mechanical ventilation and mortality in patients following burn. Given the increasing number of Americans with chronic respiratory diseases, there will likely be a greater number of individuals at risk for worse outcomes following burn.

Burn injury during long-term oxygen therapy in Denmark and Sweden: the potential role of smoking

Background

Long-term oxygen therapy (LTOT) increases life expectancy in patients with COPD and severe hypoxemia. Smoking is the main cause of burn injury during LTOT. Policy regarding smoking while on LTOT varies between countries. In this study, we compare the incidence of burn injury that required contact with a health care specialist, between Sweden (a country with a strict policy regarding smoking while on LTOT) and Denmark (a country with less strict smoking policy).

Methods

This was a population-based, cohort study of patients initiating LTOT due to any cause in Sweden and Denmark. Data on diagnoses, external causes, and procedures were obtained from the Swedish and Danish National Patient Registers for inpatient and outpatient care. Patients were followed from January 1, 2000, until the first of the following: LTOT withdrawal, death, or study end (December 31, 2009). The primary end point was burn injury during LTOT.

Results

A total of 23,741 patients received LTOT in Denmark and 7,754 patients in Sweden. Most patients started LTOT due to COPD, both in Sweden (74%) and in Denmark (62%). The rate of burn injury while on LTOT was higher in Denmark than in Sweden; 170 (95% confidence interval [CI], 126–225) vs 85 (95% CI, 44–148) per 100,000 person-years; rate ratio 2.0 (95% CI, 1.0–4.1). The risk remained higher after adjustment for gender, age, and diagnosis in multivariate Cox regression, hazard ratio 1.8 (95% CI, 1.0−3.5). Thirty-day mortality after burn injury was 8% in both countries.

Conclusion

Compared to Sweden, the rate of burn injury was twice as high in Denmark where smoking is not a contraindication for prescribing LTOT.