Anthocyanins Prevent Colorectal Cancer Development in a Mouse Model

Bioavailability of Anthocyanins: Whole Foods versus Extracts

Anthocyanins have gained significant popularity in recent years for their diverse health benefits, yet their limited bioavailability poses a challenge. To address this concern, technologies have emerged to enhance anthocyanin concentration, often isolating these compounds from other food constituents. However, the extent to which isolated anthocyanins confer health benefits compared to their whole-food counterparts remains unclear. This review explores the current literature on anthocyanin bioavailability and metabolism in the body, with a focus on comparing bioavailability when consumed as extracts versus whole foods rich in anthocyanins, drawing from in vitro, in vivo, and human clinical studies. While direct comparisons between anthocyanin bioavailability in whole foods versus isolates are scarce, prevailing evidence favours whole-food consumption over anthocyanin extracts. Further clinical investigations, preferably with direct comparisons, are needed to validate these findings and elucidate the nuanced interplay between anthocyanins and food matrices, informing future research directions and practical recommendations.

In Vitro Inhibitory Potential of Different Anthocyanin-Rich Berry Extracts in Murine CT26 Colon Cancer Cells

Anti-oxidant, -inflammatory, and -carcinogenic activities of bioactive plant constituents, such as anthocyanins, have been widely discussed in literature. However, the potential interaction of anthocyanin-rich extracts with routinely used chemotherapeutics is still not fully elucidated. In the present study, anthocyanin-rich polyphenol extracts of blackberry (BB), bilberry (Bil), black currant (BC), elderberry (EB), and their respective main anthocyanins (cyanidin-3-O-glucoside, delphinidin-3-O-glucoside, cyanidin-3-O-rutinoside, and cyanidin-3-O-sambubioside) were investigated concerning their cytotoxic and DNA-damaging properties in murine CT26 cells either alone or in combination with the chemotherapeutic agent SN-38. BB exerted potent cytotoxic effects, while Bil, BC, and EB only had marginal effects on cell viability. Single anthocyanins comprised of the extracts could not induce comparable effects. Even though the BB extract further pronounced SN-38-induced cytotoxicity and inhibited cell adhesion at 100-200 µg/mL, no effect on DNA damage was observed. In conclusion, anti-carcinogenic properties of the extracts on CT26 cells could be ranked BB >> BC ≥ Bil ≈ EB. Mechanisms underlying the potent cytotoxic effects are still to be elucidated since the induction of DNA damage does not play a role.

Advances in the Preparation, Stability, Metabolism, and Physiological Roles of Anthocyanins: A Review

Anthocyanins are natural flavonoid polyphenolic compounds widely found in fruits and vegetables. They exhibit antioxidant properties and prophylactic effects in the immune and cardiovascular systems, confer protection against cancer, and contribute to the prevention of cardiovascular diseases. Thus, their incorporation into functional foods, pharmaceuticals, supplements, and cosmetic formulations aims at promoting human well-being. This review comprehensively outlined the structural attributes of anthocyanins, expanding upon diverse methodologies employed for their extraction and production. Additionally, the stability, metabolic pathways, and manifold physiological functions of anthocyanins were discussed. However, their constrained fat solubility, susceptibility to instability, and restricted bioavailability collectively curtail their applicability and therapeutic efficacy. Consequently, a multidimensional approach was imperative, necessitating the exploration of innovative pathways to surmount these limitations, thereby amplifying the utilitarian significance of anthocyanins and furnishing pivotal support for their continual advancement and broader application.

Targeting beta-catenin signaling for prevention of colorectal cancer - Nutraceutical, drug, and dietary options

Progressive up-regulation of β-catenin signaling is very common in the transformation of colorectal epithelium to colorectal cancer (CRC). Practical measures for opposing such signaling hence have potential for preventing or slowing such transformation. cAMP/PKA activity in colon epithelium, as stimulated by COX-2-generated prostaglandins and β2-adrenergic signaling, boosts β-catenin activity, whereas cGMP/PKG signaling has the opposite effect. Bacterial generation of short-chain fatty acids (as supported by unrefined high-carbohydrate diets, berberine, and probiotics), dietary calcium, daily aspirin, antioxidants opposing cox-2 induction, and nicotine avoidance, can suppress cAMP production in colonic epithelium, whereas cGMP can be boosted via linaclotides, PDE5 inhibitors such as sildenafil or icariin, and likely high-dose biotin. Selective activation of estrogen receptor-β by soy isoflavones, support of adequate vitamin D receptor activity with UV exposure or supplemental vitamin D, and inhibition of CK2 activity with flavanols such as quercetin, can also oppose β-catenin signaling in colorectal epithelium. Secondary bile acids, the colonic production of which can be diminished by low-fat diets and berberine, can up-regulate β-catenin activity by down-regulating farnesoid X receptor expression. Stimulation of PI3K/Akt via insulin, IGF-I, TLR4, and EGFR receptors boosts β-catenin levels via inhibition of glycogen synthase-3β; plant-based diets can down-regulate insulin and IGF-I levels, exercise training and leanness can keep insulin low, anthocyanins and their key metabolite ferulic acid have potential for opposing TLR4 signaling, and silibinin is a direct antagonist for EGFR. Partially hydrolyzed phytate can oppose growth factor-mediated down-regulation of β-catenin by inhibiting Akt activation. Multifactorial strategies for safely opposing β-catenin signaling can be complemented with measures that diminish colonic mutagenesis and DNA hypomethylation - such as avoidance of heme-rich meat and charred or processed meats, consumption of phase II-inductive foods and nutraceuticals (e.g., Crucifera), and assurance of adequate folate status.

Anthocyanins as Immunomodulatory Dietary Supplements: A Nutraceutical Perspective and Micro-/Nano-Strategies for Enhanced Bioavailability

Anthocyanins (ACNs) have attracted considerable attention for their potential to modulate the immune system. Research has revealed their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, which play a crucial role in immune regulation by influencing key immune cells, such as lymphocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells. Moreover, ACNs contribute towards maintaining a balance between proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines, thus promoting immune health. Beyond their direct effects on immune cells, ACNs significantly impact gut health and the microbiota, essential factors in immune regulation. Emerging evidence suggests that they positively influence the composition of the gut microbiome, enhancing their immunomodulatory effects. Furthermore, these compounds synergize with other bioactive substances, such as vitamins and minerals, further enhancing their potential as immune-supporting dietary supplements. However, detailed clinical studies must fully validate these findings and determine safe dosages across varied populations. Incorporating these natural compounds into functional foods or supplements could revolutionize the management of immune-related conditions. Personalized nutrition and healthcare strategies may be developed to enhance overall well-being and immune resilience by fully understanding the mechanisms underlying the actions of their components. Recent advancements in delivery methods have focused on improving the bioavailability and effectiveness of ACNs, providing promising avenues for future applications.

Vaccinium uliginosum and Vaccinium myrtillus-Two Species-One Used as a Functional Food

Vaccinium uliginosum L. (commonly known as bog bilberry) and Vaccinium myrtillus L. (commonly known as bilberry) are species of the genus Vaccinium (family Ericaceae). The red-purple-blue coloration of blueberries is attributed largely to the anthocyanins found in bilberries. Anthocyanins, known for their potent biological activity as antioxidants, have a significant involvement in the prophylaxis of cancer or other diseases, including those of metabolic origin. Bilberry is the most important economically wild berry in Northern Europe, and it is also extensively used in juice and food production. A review of the latest literature was performed to assess the composition and biological activity of V. uliginosum and V. myrtillus. Clinical studies confirm the benefits of V. uliginosum and V. myrtillus supplementation as part of a healthy diet. Because of their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, and apoptosis-reducing activity, both bog bilberries and bilberries can be used interchangeably as a dietary supplement with anti-free radical actions in the prevention of cancer diseases and cataracts, or as a component of sunscreen preparations.

Relationship between Chemical Structure and Biological Activity Evaluated In Vitro for Six Anthocyanidins Most Commonly Occurring in Edible Plants

Numerous studies have provided evidence that diets rich in anthocyanins show a broad spectrum of health benefits. Anthocyanins in nature are usually found in the form of glycosides. Their aglycone forms are called anthocyanidins. The chemical structure of anthocyanins is based on the flavylium cation, but they differ in the position and number of substituents. However, the bioactives and foods that contain them are frequently treated as a uniform group of compounds exhibiting the same biological activity, without paying attention to the structural differences between individual anthocyanidins. The aim of this study was to find out how structural differences impact the biological activity of the six most common dietary anthocyanidins, i.e., delphinidin (Dp), petunidin (Pt), cyanidin (Cd), malvidin (Mv), pelargonidin (Pg) and peonidin (Po). The study concentrated on redox-related phenomena and compared the following parameters: antioxidant activity (measured using various methods: spectrophotometric tests (ABTS, DPPH), ORAC assay and CAA test (cellular antioxidant activity)), the ability to inhibit growth of human colon cancer cells (HT29; determined using MTT assay), and the ability of studied compounds to protect DNA from oxidative damage (comet assay). Based on the obtained results, the relationship between the structure of studied anthocyanidins and their biological activity was assessed. The obtained results revealed that the number and position of the hydroxyl and methoxy groups in the anthocyanidin structure strongly influenced not only the color of anthocyanidins but most of all their antioxidant and biological activities.

The preventive and therapeutic effects of anthocyanins on colorectal cancer: A comprehensive review based on up-to-date experimental studies

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the second most lethal and the third most diagnosed type of cancer worldwide. More than 75% of CRC cases are sporadic and lifestyle-related. Risk factors include diet, physical inactivity, genetics, smoking, alcohol, changes in the intestinal microbiota, and inflammation-related diseases such as obesity, diabetes, and inflammatory bowel diseases. The limits of conventional treatments (surgery, chemotherapy, radiotherapy), as demonstrated by the side effects and resistance of many CRC patients, are making professionals search for new chemopreventive alternatives. In this context, diets rich in fruits and vegetables or plant-based products, which contain high levels of phytochemicals, have been postulated as complementary therapeutic options. Anthocyanins, phenolic pigments responsible for the vivid colors of most red, purple, and blue fruits and vegetables, have been shown protective effects on CRC. Berries, grapes, Brazilian fruits, and vegetables such as black rice and purple sweet potato are examples of products rich in anthocyanins, which have been able to reduce cancer development by modulating signaling pathways associated with CRC. Therefore, this review has as main objective to present and discuss the potential preventive and therapeutic effects of anthocyanins present in fruits and vegetables, in plant extracts, or in their pure form on CRC, taking into account up-to-date experimental studies (2017-2023). Additionally, a highlight is given towards the mechanisms of action of anthocyanins on CRC.

Basal Diet Fed to Recipient Mice Was the Driving Factor for Colitis and Colon Tumorigenesis, despite Fecal Microbiota Transfer from Mice with Severe or Mild Disease

Consumption of the total Western diet (TWD) in mice has been shown to increase gut inflammation, promote colon tumorigenesis, and alter fecal microbiome composition when compared to mice fed a healthy diet, i.e., AIN93G (AIN). However, it is unclear whether the gut microbiome contributes directly to colitis-associated CRC in this model. The objective of this study was to determine whether dynamic fecal microbiota transfer (FMT) from donor mice fed either the AIN basal diet or the TWD would alter colitis symptoms or colitis-associated CRC in recipient mice, which were fed either the AIN diet or the TWD, using a 2 × 2 factorial experiment design. Time-matched FMT from the donor mice fed the TWD did not significantly enhance symptoms of colitis, colon epithelial inflammation, mucosal injury, or colon tumor burden in the recipient mice fed the AIN diet. Conversely, FMT from the AIN-fed donors did not impart a protective effect on the recipient mice fed the TWD. Likewise, the composition of fecal microbiomes of the recipient mice was also affected to a much greater extent by the diet they consumed than by the source of FMT. In summary, FMT from the donor mice fed either basal diet with differing colitis or tumor outcomes did not shift colitis symptoms or colon tumorigenesis in the recipient mice, regardless of the basal diet they consumed. These observations suggest that the gut microbiome may not contribute directly to the development of disease in this animal model.

Behind the Scenes of Anthocyanins-From the Health Benefits to Potential Applications in Food, Pharmaceutical and Cosmetic Fields

Anthocyanins are widespread and biologically active water-soluble phenolic pigments responsible for a wide range of vivid colours, from red (acidic conditions) to purplish blue (basic conditions), present in fruits, vegetables, and coloured grains. The pigments' stability and colours are influenced mainly by pH but also by structure, temperature, and light. The colour-stabilizing mechanisms of plants are determined by inter- and intramolecular co-pigmentation and metal complexation, driven by van der Waals, π-π stacking, hydrogen bonding, and metal-ligand interactions. This group of flavonoids is well-known to have potent anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects, which explains the biological effects associated with them. Therefore, this review provides an overview of the role of anthocyanins as natural colorants, showing they are less harmful than conventional colorants, with several technological potential applications in different industrial fields, namely in the textile and food industries, as well as in the development of photosensitizers for dye-sensitized solar cells, as new photosensitizers in photodynamic therapy, pharmaceuticals, and in the cosmetic industry, mainly on the formulation of skin care formulations, sunscreen filters, nail colorants, skin & hair cleansing products, amongst others. In addition, we will unveil some of the latest studies about the health benefits of anthocyanins, mainly focusing on the protection against the most prevalent human diseases mediated by oxidative stress, namely cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases, cancer, and diabetes. The contribution of anthocyanins to visual health is also very relevant and will be briefly explored.

Flavonoid Intake in Relation to Colorectal Cancer Risk and Blood Bacterial DNA

Flavonoids have been inversely associated to colorectal cancer (CRC) and are plausible intermediaries for the relation among gut microbiome, intestinal permeability and CRC. We analyzed the relation of flavonoid intake with CRC and blood bacterial DNA. We conducted a case-control study in Italy involving 100 incident CRC cases and 200 controls. A valid and reproducible food-frequency questionnaire was used to assess dietary habits and to estimate six flavonoid subclass intakes. We applied qPCR and 16S rRNA gene profiling to assess blood bacterial DNA. We used multiple logistic regression to derive odds ratios (ORs) of CRC and Mann-Whitney and chi--square tests to evaluate abundance and prevalence of operational taxonomic units (OTUs) according to flavonoid intakes. Inverse associations with CRC were found for anthocyanidins (OR for the highest versus the lowest tertile = 0.24, 95% confidence interval, CI = 0.11-0.52) and flavanones (OR = 0.18, 95% CI = 0.08-0.42). We found different abundance and prevalence according to anthocyanidin and flavanone intake for OTUs referring to Oligoflexales order, Diplorickettsiaceae family, Staphylococcus, Brevundimonas, Pelomonas and Escherischia-Shigella genera, and Flavobacterium and Legionella species. The study provides evidence to a protective effect of dietary anthocyanidins and flavanones on CRC and suggests an influence of flavonoids on blood bacterial DNA, possibly through intestinal permeability changes.

Supplementation of polyphenol-rich grapes attenuates colitis, colitis-associated colon cancer and disease-associated dysbiosis in mice, but fails to mitigate colitis in antibiotic-treated mice

Polyphenols are known to interact with gut microbes that play key roles in maintaining gut health, but the role of gut microbiota modulation by polyphenols in mitigating colonic diseases is not fully established. We hypothesize that the interaction of polyphenols with the gut microbiota contributes to the attenuation of colitis and colitis-associated colon cancer (CAC). To test this hypothesis, we examined the effects of dietary supplementation of polyphenol-rich grape powder (GP) on azoxymethane (AOM) and dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis, CAC and the gut microbiota in mice (study 1), and further compared anti-colitis effects of GP in regular and antibiotic-treated mice (study 2). Compared to the control diet that has matched non-polyphenol contents, 10% GP, but not 3% GP, attenuated AOM-DSS induced colitis and tumor multiplicity by 29% (p<0.05). Ten percent GP increased gut bacterial evenness and counteracted CAC-induced decrease of bacterial evenness and changes of microbial composition. Remarkably, gut bacterial functional profiles of healthy mice and diseased mice fed 10% GP were similar, and both were significantly different from those of diseased mice with the control diet. Furthermore, 10% GP increased the relative abundance of butyrate-producing bacteria in the Lachnospiraceae family and enhanced the concentrations of fecal butyrate. Additionally, 10% GP mitigated DSS-induced colitis in conventional mice, but not the antibiotic-treated, gut microbe-depleted mice. Collectively, our studies demonstrate that grape polyphenols alleviate colonic diseases and prevent disease-associated dysbiosis, and their interaction with the gut microbiota may play a causative role in the protection of gut health.

Genetic Diversity and Health Properties of Polyphenols in Potato

Polyphenol is one of the most essential phytochemicals with various health benefits. Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is known as a potential source of polyphenols, and also has health benefits in which phenolic acids, such as chlorogenic, ferulic acid, caffeic acid, and flavonoids, such as anthocyanins, sustainably play the most significant role. Almost every polyphenol contributes to various biological activities. In this review, we collected comprehensive information concerning the diversity of polyphenols in potatoes, and the effects of post-harvest processing and different cooking methods on the bioavailability of polyphenols. To achieve maximum health benefits, the selection of potato cultivars is necessary by choosing their colors, but various cooking methods are also very important in obtaining the maximum concentration of polyphenolic compounds. The health properties including major biological activities of polyphenols, such as antioxidant activity, anticarcinogenic activity, anti-inflammatory activity, anti-obesity activity, and antidiabetic activity, have also been summarized. All these biological activities of polyphenols in potatoes might be helpful for breeders in the design of new varieties with many health benefits, and are expected to play a vital role in both pharmaceutical and nutraceutical industries.

Anthocyanins in Colorectal Cancer Prevention Review

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is still a big health burden worldwide. Nutrition and dietary factors are known to affect colorectal cancer development and prognosis. The protective roles of diets rich in fruits and vegetables have been previously reported to contain high levels of cancer-fighting phytochemicals. Anthocyanins are the most abundant flavonoid compounds that are responsible for the bright colors of most blue, purple, and red fruits and vegetables, and have been shown to contribute to the protective effects of fruits and vegetables against cancer and other chronic diseases. Berries and grapes are the most common anthocyanin-rich fruits with antitumor effects. The antitumor effects of anthocyanins are determined by their structures and bioavailability as well as how they are metabolized. In this review, we aimed to discuss the preventive as well as therapeutic potentials of anthocyanins in CRC. We summarized the antitumor effects of anthocyanins and the mechanisms of action. We also discussed the potential pharmaceutical application of anthocyanins in practice.

Dietary Polyphenols: Promising Adjuvants for Colorectal Cancer Therapies

Simple Summary

Colorectal cancer is a leading cause of death worldwide. Despite the development of novel surgical and therapeutic strategies, 50% of patients relapse after treatment. Therapy failure, due to low efficacy, adverse effects and drug resistance, is thus a major concern. The idea of combining standard therapy with non-toxic bioactive natural compounds is a recent topic in cancer research and aims to increase the efficacy of current antitumor therapies while reducing drug toxicity and adverse effects. In recent years, several studies have explored the capacity of polyphenols, dietary bioactive compounds enriched in fruit and vegetables, to act as adjuvants to improve colorectal cancer therapy. In the present review, we discuss these studies, highlighting the mechanisms underlying the adjuvant effect, and bring out the potential of this novel therapeutic approach as well as the critical issues related to clinical application.

Abstract

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a major cancer type and a leading cause of death worldwide. Despite advances in therapeutic management, the current medical treatments are not sufficient to control metastatic disease. Treatment-related adverse effects and drug resistance strongly contribute to therapy failure and tumor recurrence. Combination therapy, involving cytotoxic treatments and non-toxic natural compounds, is arousing great interest as a promising more effective and safer alternative. Polyphenols, a heterogeneous group of bioactive dietary compounds mainly found in fruit and vegetables, have received great attention for their capacity to modulate various molecular pathways active in cancer cells and to affect host anticancer response. This review provides a summary of the most recent (i.e., since 2016) preclinical and clinical studies using polyphenols as adjuvants for CRC therapies. These studies highlight the beneficial effects of dietary polyphenols in combination with cytotoxic drugs or irradiation on both therapy outcome and drug resistance. Despite substantial preclinical evidence, data from a few pilot clinical trials are available to date with promising but still inconclusive results. Larger randomized controlled studies and polyphenol formulations with improved bioavailability are needed to translate the research progress into clinical applications and definitively prove the added value of these molecules in CRC management.

Bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.) Powder Has Anticarcinogenic Effects on Oral Carcinoma In Vitro and In Vivo

Previous studies indicate that bilberry with high amounts of phenolic compounds can inhibit carcinogenic processes of colorectal cancer in vitro and in vivo. However, no studies have focused on the effects of bilberry on oral cancer. In this study, we aimed to examine the effects of bilberry powder on oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) cells using both in vitro and in vivo assays. The effects of 0, 1, 10, and 25 mg/mL of whole bilberry powder on the viability, proliferation, migration, and invasion of OSCC (HSC-3) cells were examined and compared with 0.01 mg/mL of cetuximab. Two oral keratinocyte cell lines served as controls. Tumor area was analyzed in zebrafish microinjected with HSC-3 cells and treated with 2.5, 10, or 25 µg/mL of bilberry powder. Metastases in the head or tail areas were counted. Bilberry powder inhibited the viability, proliferation, migration, and invasion of HSC-3 cells (p < 0.05), which was more pronounced with higher concentrations. Cetuximab had no effect on HSC-3 cell migration or invasion. Compared to controls, the tumor area in zebrafish treated with bilberry powder (10 and 25 µg/mL) was reduced significantly (p = 0.038 and p = 0.021, respectively), but the number of fish with metastases did not differ between groups. Based on our in vitro and in vivo experiments, we conclude that whole bilberry powder has anti-tumor effects on OSCC cells.

Dietary Effects of Anthocyanins in Human Health: A Comprehensive Review

In recent years, the consumption of natural-based foods, including beans, fruits, legumes, nuts, oils, vegetables, spices, and whole grains, has been encouraged. This fact is essentially due to their content in bioactive phytochemicals, with the phenolic compounds standing out. Among them, anthocyanins have been a target of many studies due to the presence of catechol, pyrogallol, and methoxy groups in their chemical structure, which confer notable scavenging, anti-apoptotic, and anti-inflammatory activities, being already recommended as supplementation to mitigate or even attenuate certain disorders, such as diabetes, cancer, and cardiovascular and neurological pathologies. The most well-known anthocyanins are cyanidin 3-O-glucoside and cyanidin 3-O-rutinoside. They are widespread in nature, being present in considerable amounts in red fruits and red vegetables. Overall, the present review intends to discuss the most recent findings on the potential health benefits from the daily intake of anthocyanin-rich foods, as well as their possible pharmacological mechanisms of action. However, before that, some emphasis regarding their chemical structure, dietary sources, and bioavailability was done.

Anticancer Effects of Lingonberry and Bilberry on Digestive Tract Cancers

Wild berries are part of traditional Nordic diets and are a rich source of phytochemicals, such as polyphenols. Various berry treatments have shown to interfere with cancer progression in vitro and in vivo. Here, we systematically reviewed the anticancer effects of two Nordic wild berries of the Vaccinium genus, lingonberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea) and bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus), on digestive tract cancers. The review was conducted according to the PRISMA 2020 guidelines. Searches included four databases: PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and CAB abstracts. Publications not written in English, case-reports, reviews, and conference abstracts were excluded. Moreover, studies with only indirect markers of cancer risk or studies with single compounds not derived from lingonberry or bilberry were not included. Meta-analysis was not performed. The majority (21/26) of studies investigated bilberry and colorectal cancer. Experimental studies on colorectal cancer indicated that bilberry inhibited intestinal tumor formation and cancer cell growth. One uncontrolled pilot human study supported the inhibitory potential of bilberry on colorectal cancer cell proliferation. Data from all 10 lingonberry studies suggests potent inhibition of cancer cell growth and tumor formation. In conclusion, in vitro and animal models support the antiproliferative and antitumor effects of various bilberry and lingonberry preparations on digestive tract cancers.

Emu Oil and Saireito in combination reduce tumour development and clinical indicators of disease in a mouse model of colitis-associated colorectal cancer

BACKGROUND

Emu Oil (EO) previously demonstrated therapeutic potential in a mouse model of colitis-associated CRC (CA-CRC). Saireito, a traditional Japanese medicine, has not been investigated in CA-CRC.

AIM

To determine whether EO and Saireito could be therapeutic in an azoxymethane (AOM)/dextran sulphate sodium (DSS) model of CA-CRC.

METHODS

Female C57BL/6 mice were assigned to groups (n = 10/group); 1) saline control, 2) saline+Saireito, 3) saline+EO, 4) saline+EO/Saireito, 5) AOM/DSS control, 6) AOM/DSS+Saireito, 7) AOM/DSS+EO and 8) AOM/DSS+EO/Saireito. Mice were intraperitoneally injected with saline or AOM (7.4 mg/kg) on day 0 and underwent three DSS/water cycles (2%w/v DSS for 7 days, 14 days water). Mice were orally-gavaged with either water (80 µL), Saireito (80 µL), EO (80 µL) or EO/Saireito (160 µL; 80 µL EO + 80 µL Saireito) thrice weekly. Daily bodyweight and disease activity index (DAI) were recorded and colonoscopies performed on days 20, 41 and 62. Mice were euthanized on day 63. p < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.

RESULTS

AOM/DSS induced significant bodyweight loss throughout the trial (max -36%), which was attenuated by Saireito (max +7%), EO (max +5%) and EO/Saireito (max +14%; p < 0.05). AOM/DSS increased DAI compared to saline controls (p < 0.05), which was reduced by Saireito, EO and EO/Saireito (p < 0.05). All treatments reduced colonoscopically-assessed colitis severity (days 20 and 41; p < 0.05). EO/Saireito further decreased colitis severity compared to Saireito and EO alone (day 20; p < 0.05). Finally, EO and EO/Saireito resulted in fewer colonic tumours compared to AOM/DSS controls (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Combined EO and Saireito reduced disease and tumour development in AOM/DSS mice, suggesting therapeutic potential in CA-CRC.

Anthocyanins, Microbiome and Health Benefits in Aging

The percentage of individuals over the age of 60 is projected to reach 22% by 2050; chronic diseases associated with aging can present challenges for these individuals. Anthocyanins and the gut microbiome have each been studied as independent influencers of health. Both these factors have shown to have a positive effect on cardiovascular and bone health in individuals, as well as on the prevention or treatment of certain forms of cancers. Anthocyanins have shown to modulate the composition of the gut microbiome and may have overlapping mechanisms in the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular disease, cancer, neurodegenerative disorders and aging-associated bone loss. These health outcomes are responsible for the hospitalization and deaths of millions of Americans every year and they cost the United States billions of dollars each year to maintain, prevent and treat. Alternative methods of treatment and prevention are desired since conventional methods (surgical and pharmacological methods, physical therapy, etc.) can be costly and have significant side effects; evidence suggests that anthocyanins and the gut microbiome may be potential avenues for this. This review evaluates the findings of existing literature on the role of anthocyanins and the gut microbiome on health and their potential as a natural therapeutic agent or a target organ to provide an alternative to the conventional methods of disease prevention and treatment.

Food Bioactive Compounds and Emerging Techniques for Their Extraction: Polyphenols as a Case Study

Experimental studies have provided convincing evidence that food bioactive compounds (FBCs) have a positive biological impact on human health, exerting protective effects against non-communicable diseases (NCD) including cancer and cardiovascular (CVDs), metabolic, and neurodegenerative disorders (NDDs). These benefits have been associated with the presence of secondary metabolites, namely polyphenols, glucosinolates, carotenoids, terpenoids, alkaloids, saponins, vitamins, and fibres, among others, derived from their antioxidant, antiatherogenic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antithrombotic, cardioprotective, and vasodilator properties. Polyphenols as one of the most abundant classes of bioactive compounds present in plant-based foods emerge as a promising approach for the development of efficacious preventive agents against NCDs with reduced side effects. The aim of this review is to present comprehensive and deep insights into the potential of polyphenols, from their chemical structure classification and biosynthesis to preventive effects on NCDs, namely cancer, CVDs, and NDDS. The challenge of polyphenols bioavailability and bioaccessibility will be explored in addition to useful industrial and environmental applications. Advanced and emerging extraction techniques will be highlighted and the high-resolution analytical techniques used for FBCs characterization, identification, and quantification will be considered.

Reduction of colitis-associated colon carcinogenesis by a black lentil water extract through inhibition of inflammatory and immunomodulatory cytokines

The objective was to compare the impact of black lentil (BL) water and delphinidin 3-O-(2-O-β-d-glucopyranosyl-α-l-arabinopyranoside) (D3G)-rich lentil extracts on tumor development, inflammation and immune response in an azoxymethane (AOM)/dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) model. C57BL/6 mice were randomly separated into four groups: healthy control (n = 6), AOM/DSS control (n = 14), AOM/DSS + BL (600 mg/kg body wt, n = 12) and AOM/DSS + D3G (41 mg/kg body wt, equivalent to D3G concentration in BL, n = 12). Mice were given treatments for 11 weeks using a voluntary jelly administration. AOM/DSS + BL presented a lower (P < 0.05) disease activity index, throughout and at the end (2.4) compared with AOM/DSS (6.3). AOM/DSS + BL mice had an average of 7.8 neoplasms versus 12.8 for the AOM/DSS (P < 0.05). Proinflammatory cytokines were downregulated in the colon mucosa: interleukin (IL)-1β (-77.5%, -70.7%) and IL-6 (-44.4%, -44.9%) by AOM/DSS + BL and AOM/DSS + D3G, respectively, compared with AOM/DSS. IL-6 protein expression was decreased by BL in plasma (-72.6%) and gene expression in colon polyps (fold change: -4.0) compared with AOM/DSS. AOM/DSS + D3G non-polyp tissue gene expression clustered with the healthy control tissue with only four genes modified (secreted phosphoprotein 1 and CXC motif chemokine ligands 2, 5 and 10). AOM/DSS + BL downregulated programmed death-ligand 1 protein expression in colon tissue (-54.7%) and gene expression by 2.8-fold compared with the AOM/DSS control. In fecal samples, gallic and protocatechuic acids and epicatechin were found, and concentration of most amino acids was lower and unsaturated fatty acids were higher for AOM/DSS + BL and AOM/DSS + D3G. BL and D3G-rich extracts showed anti-inflammatory and proimmune response effects while BL additionally prevented growth of neoplasia.

Chemopreventive Effect of Dietary Anthocyanins against Gastrointestinal Cancers: A Review of Recent Advances and Perspectives

Anthocyanins are a group of dietary polyphenols, abundant mainly in fruits and their products. Dietary interventions of anthocyanins are being studied extensively related to the prevention of gastrointestinal (GI) cancer, among many other chronic disorders. This review summarizes the hereditary and non-hereditary characteristics of GI cancers, chemistry, and bioavailability of anthocyanins, and the most recent findings of anthocyanin in GI cancer prevention through modulating cellular signaling pathways. GI cancer-preventive attributes of anthocyanins are primarily due to their antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, and anti-proliferative properties, and their ability to regulate gene expression and metabolic pathways, as well as induce the apoptosis of cancer cells.

The Therapeutic Potential of Anthocyanins: Current Approaches Based on Their Molecular Mechanism of Action

Anthocyanins are natural phenolic pigments with biological activity. They are well-known to have potent antioxidant and antiinflammatory activity, which explains the various biological effects reported for these substances suggesting their antidiabetic and anticancer activities, and their role in cardiovascular and neuroprotective prevention. This review aims to comprehensively analyze different studies performed on this class of compounds, their bioavailability and their therapeutic potential. An in-depth look in preclinical, in vitro and in vivo, and clinical studies indicates the preventive effects of anthocyanins on cardioprotection, neuroprotection, antiobesity as well as their antidiabetes and anticancer effects.

The Prevention and Inhibition Effect of Anthocyanins on Colorectal Cancer

BACKGROUND

Anthocyanins are a type of flavonoids that are natural water soluble glycosidic pigments with efficacious anti-cancer effects, which have good biological activity against many cancers including colorectal cancer (CRC). However, the exact molecular mechanism used by anthocyanins against cancer is unclear; it is also unclear what a reasonable dosage might be for their use against colorectal cancer.

METHODS

Western blotting, immunohistochemistry, MTT assay, xenograft model, and hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining were used to perform the experiments.

RESULTS

Compared with the control group, anthocyanins could significantly inhibit the cell viability and proliferation and promote the apoptosis of human colon cancer HT29 cells. Furthermore, anthocyanins reduced tumor weight and volume in a colon tumor mouse model and downregulated the expression of PI3K protein, inhibited AKT expression and phosphorylation, decreased the Bcl-2 and Bax ratio and reduced survivin protein expression in the tumor tissue.

CONCLUSION

Anthocyanins promoted apoptosis of CRC cells and inhibited colon cancer growth of xenografted tumors. Mechanistically, anthocyanins enhanced the Bcl-2/Bax and caspase-dependent apoptotic pathways through targeting the PI3K/AKT/survivin pathway, resulting in impairment of growth of CRC.

The ameliorating effects of anthocyanins on the cross-linked signaling pathways of cancer dysregulated metabolism

Cancer cells underlie the dysregulated metabolism of carbohydrate, lipid and protein and thereby, employ interconnected cross-linked signaling pathways to supply adequate energy for growth and related biosynthetic procedures. In the present study, a comprehensive review of cancer metabolism and anthocyanin's effect was conducted using the existing electronic databases, including Medline, PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science, as well as related articles in the field. Such keywords as "cancer", and "cancer metabolism" in the title/abstract/keyword and all the "anthocyanins" in the whole text were used. Data were collected without time restriction until February 2020. The results indicated the involvement of several signaling pathways, including inflammatory PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway, Bax/Bcl-2/caspases as apoptosis modulators, and NF-κB/Nrf2 as oxidative stress mediators in the cancer dysregulated metabolism. Compelling studies have shown that targeting these pathways, as critical hallmarks of cancer, plays a critical role in combating cancer dysregulated metabolism. The complexity of cancer metabolism signaling pathways, along with toxicity, high costs, and resistance to conventional drugs urge the need to investigate novel multi-target agents. Increasing evidence has introduced plant-derived secondary metabolites as hopeful anticancer candidates which target multiple dysregulated cross-linked pathways of cancer metabolism. Amongst these metabolites, anthocyanins have demonstrated positive anticancer effects by targeting inflammation, oxidative stress, and apoptotic signaling pathways. The current study revealed the cross-linked signaling pathways of cancer metabolism, as well as the promising pharmacological mechanisms of anthocyanins in targeting the aforementioned signaling mediators. To overcome the pharmacokinetic limitations of anthocyanins in cancer treatment, their interactions with gut microbiota and the need to develop related nano-formulations were also considered.

The interplay between dietary factors, gut microbiome and colorectal cancer: a new era of colorectal cancer prevention

Colorectal cancer is the third most common cancer in the world and its incidence is on the rise. Dietary intervention has emerged as an attractive strategy to curtail its occurrence and progression. Diet is known to influence the gut microbiome, as dietary factors and gut bacteria can act in concert to cause or protect from colorectal cancer. Several studies have presented evidence for such interactions and have pointed out the different ways by which the diet and gut microbiome can be altered to produce beneficial effects. This review article aims to summarize the interrelationship between diet, gut flora and colorectal cancer so that a better preventive approach can be applied.

Fruits

Fruits come in a wide variety of colors, shapes, and flavors. This chapter will cover selected fruits that are known to be healthy and highly nutritious. These fruits were chosen due to their common usage and availability. Since it is not possible to cover all health benefits or essential nutrients and important phytochemicals of the fruit composition, this chapter will focus on the key valuable constituents and their potential health effects.

Phytochemicals and Gastrointestinal Cancer: Cellular Mechanisms and Effects to Change Cancer Progression

Gastrointestinal (GI) cancer is a prevailing global health disease with a high incidence rate which varies by region. It is a huge economic burden on health care providers. GI cancer affects different organs in the body such as the gastric organs, colon, esophagus, intestine, and pancreas. Internal and external factors like smoking, obesity, urbanization, genetic mutations, and prevalence of Helicobacter pylori and Hepatitis B and Hepatitis C viral infections could increase the risk of GI cancer. Phytochemicals are non-nutritive bioactive secondary compounds abundantly found in fruits, grains, and vegetables. Consumption of phytochemicals may protect against chronic diseases like cardiovascular disease, neurodegenerative disease, and cancer. Multiple studies have assessed the chemoprotective effect of selected phytochemicals in GI cancer, offering support to their potential towards reducing the pathogenesis of the disease. The aim of this review was to summarize the current knowledge addressing the anti-cancerous effects of selected dietary phytochemicals on GI cancer and their molecular activities on selected mechanisms, i.e., nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB), detoxification enzymes, adenosine monophosphate activated protein kinase (AMPK), wingless-related integration site/β-catenin (wingless-related integration site (Wnt) β-catenin, cell apoptosis, phosphoinositide 3-kinases (PI3K)/ protein kinase B AKT/ mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK). In this review phytochemicals were classified into four main categories: (i) carotenoids, including lutein, lycopene, and β-carotene; (ii) proanthocyanidins, including quercetin and ellagic acid; (iii) organosulfur compounds, including allicin, allyl propyl disulphide, asparagusic acid, and sulforaphane; and (iv) other phytochemicals including pectin, curcumins, p-coumaric acid and ferulic acid. Overall, phytochemicals improve cancer prognosis through the downregulation of β-catenin phosphorylation, therefore enhancing apoptosis, and upregulation of the AMPK pathway, which supports cellular homeostasis. Nevertheless, more studies are needed to provide a better understanding of the mechanism of cancer treatment using phytochemicals and possible side effects associated with this approach.

Anthocyanins in Colorectal Cancer Prevention. A Systematic Review of the Literature in Search of Molecular Oncotargets

Background: Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the malignant process that surges in the terminal part of gastrointestinal tract when adenomatous polyps convert to neoplastic cells able to infiltrate the submucosa. Despite the constant progress in applying preventive measures (screening, colonoscopy) and developing new cures (surgical and chemotherapy), CRC is still one of the leading causes of cancer death worldwide. The importance of natural dietary components in CRC prevention has been recognized. Defining the precise role of the diet and its particular molecular moieties in CRC prevention is of constant scientific interest years behind. Anthocyanins (AC), phenolic phytochemicals present in pigmented plants and vegetables, have been reported to have some role in counteracting CRC carcinogenesis. Nonetheless, evidence coming out the pre-clinical, clinical, and epidemiological studies is still controversial. This review is addressing the need to better comprehend the causes of missing data and discrepancies in investigations on the role of dietary AC in modulating CRC carcinogenesis. Methods: We have analyzed the scientific literature, available in PubMed database, according to PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) statement methodology for systematic reviews. Subsequently, two selection strategies, with their screening and eligibility criteria, were applied to retain research articles reporting in vitro and in vivo studies aimed at exploring the molecular mechanisms underlying the observed effects of AC in CRC prevention. Results: From the pool of 82 identified publications, we selected 19 articles reporting experimental or observational data on the effect of AC-enriched diets in CRC prevention in humans or murine species. Furthermore, we selected 10 articles reporting about molecular mechanisms of action of pure AC in CRC experimental models. Conclusions: The major outcome of this review is that AC showed essentially no effect in human studies, whereas AC-enriched diets proved to be effective in experimental murine models of CRC. In cell culture tests, AC showed to interfere with cell signaling pathways related to cell growth and differentiation, apoptosis, oxygen stress, and inflammation response. Further molecular characterizations are required to include AC in the panel of disease-modifying agents.

Natural flavonoids for the prevention of colon cancer: A comprehensive review of preclinical and clinical studies

Flavonoids comprise a group of natural polyphenols consisting of more than 5,000 subtypes mostly existing in fruits and vegetables. Flavonoids consumption could potentially attenuate the incidence and recurrence risk of colorectal cancers through their antiperoxidative, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory effects. In addition, these compounds regulate the mitochondrial function, balance the bacterial flora and promote the apoptosis process in cancerous cells. However, some previous data failed to show the effectiveness of flavonoids in reducing the risk of colorectal cancer. In this study, we have reviewed the efficacy of different flavonoids subtypes on the risk of colon cancer and molecular mechanisms involved in this process in both clinical and animal studies. In addition, we tried to elucidate the potential synergy between these compounds and current colorectal cancer treatments.

Dietary phytochemicals in colorectal cancer prevention and treatment: A focus on the molecular mechanisms involved

Worldwide, colorectal cancer (CRC) remains a major cancer type and leading cause of death. Unfortunately, current medical treatments are not sufficient due to lack of effective therapy, adverse side effects, chemoresistance and disease recurrence. In recent decades, epidemiologic observations have highlighted the association between the ingestion of several phytochemical-enriched foods and nutrients and the lower risk of CRC. According to preclinical studies, dietary phytochemicals exert chemopreventive effects on CRC by regulating different markers and signaling pathways; additionally, the gut microbiota plays a role as vital effector in CRC onset and progression, therefore, any dietary alterations in it may affect CRC occurrence. A high number of studies have displayed a key role of growth factors and their signaling pathways in the pathogenesis of CRC. Indeed, the efficiency of dietary phytochemicals to modulate carcinogenic processes through the alteration of different molecular targets, such as Wnt/β-catenin, PI3K/Akt/mTOR, MAPK (p38, JNK and Erk1/2), EGFR/Kras/Braf, TGF-β/Smad2/3, STAT1-STAT3, NF-кB, Nrf2 and cyclin-CDK complexes, has been proven, whereby many of these targets also represent the backbone of modern drug discovery programs. Furthermore, epigenetic analysis showed modified or reversed aberrant epigenetic changes exerted by dietary phytochemicals that led to possible CRC prevention or treatment. Therefore, our aim is to discuss the effects of some common dietary phytochemicals that might be useful in CRC as preventive or therapeutic agents. This review will provide new guidance for research, in order to identify the most studied phytochemicals, their occurrence in foods and to evaluate the therapeutic potential of dietary phytochemicals for the prevention or treatment of CRC by targeting several genes and signaling pathways, as well as epigenetic modifications. In addition, the results obtained by recent investigations aimed at improving the production of these phytochemicals in genetically modified plants have been reported. Overall, clinical data on phytochemicals against CRC are still not sufficient and therefore the preventive impacts of dietary phytochemicals on CRC development deserve further research so as to provide additional insights for human prospective studies.

Functional Anthocyanin-Rich Sausages Diminish Colorectal Cancer in an Animal Model and Reduce Pro-Inflammatory Bacteria in the Intestinal Microbiota

Colorectal cancer is the fourth most common neoplasia in Europe, where it accounts for 28.2 new cases per 100,000 inhabitants. In an effort to decrease the incidence of this disease, various prevention measures are being studied, one of which are anthocyanin-rich foods. Anthocyanins are potent antioxidant flavonoids mainly found in flowers and colorful fruits and vegetables. These nutraceuticals have diverse biological functions once ingested, including immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory and antitumor functions. In order to test the preventive effect of these flavonoids against colorectal cancer, an animal model (Rattus norvegicus F344) was developed. In this model two doses of azoxymethane (10 mg/kg) and two treatments with dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) were administered to the animals. For 20 weeks they were fed either control rat feed, control sausages, or functional sausages containing 0.1% (w/w) of anthocyanins from a mixture of dehydrated blackberries and strawberries. At the end of that period, the animals were sacrificed and their antioxidant plasma levels and digestive tract tissues were analyzed. The results revealed a statistically significant reduction in the number of colon tumors in the functional sausages cohort with respect to the control animals and an increase in the FRAP (ferric reducing ability of plasma) total antioxidant activity in that same cohort. Colon microbiota differences were also examined via metagenomics 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) sequencing, revealing a significant reduction in populations of the pro-inflammatory Bilophila wadsworthia. Therefore, the design of functional processed meat products, such as ones enriched with anthocyanins, may be an effective strategy for preventing inflammatory digestive diseases and colorectal cancer in human populations.

Chemopreventive effects of some popular phytochemicals on human colon cancer: a review

The present review summarizes (1) the epidemiology and etiology of colon cancer, (2) generalized cancer chemoprotective mechanisms, and (3) the chemopreventive properties of some popular phytochemicals as well as some phytochemicals developed by our research group recently.