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Murata N, Toda H, Ubukata H, Takagi M, Tanaka C, Machinaga A, Miyajima M, Tatara S. Development of Automated Visual Acuity Measurement Using a Calibration-Free Eye-Tracking System. Cureus 2024; 16:e64401. [PMID: 39130869 PMCID: PMC11317119 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.64401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/12/2024] [Indexed: 08/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Purpose Infant vision assessment often relies on grating acuity; however, its objectivity and convenience must be improved. A calibration-free eye-tracking system, even in preverbal children, enables easy and precise gaze analysis. This pilot study aimed to develop a reliable automated monocular vision screening. Methods Participants (n=118) underwent a grating visual acuity test using the eye-tracking system. Correlations between the grating acuity, uncorrected visual acuity, and refractive error were analyzed across different cutoff values of fixation duration percentage. Results Strong correlations were found between the grating acuity and refractive error at 69% and 88% thresholds. Similar correlations with uncorrected visual acuity were noted at 70% and 89% thresholds. False-negatives around the 70% threshold were noted, indicating potential overestimation of acuity in cases of low visual acuity/high refractive error. Discussion The results highlight the feasibility of calibration-free eye-tracking system-based monocular vision screening with an optimal screening threshold of 90%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noriaki Murata
- Department of Orthoptics and Visual Sciences, Niigata University of Health and Welfare, Niigata, JPN
| | - Haruo Toda
- Department of Orthoptics and Visual Sciences, Niigata University of Health and Welfare, Niigata, JPN
| | - Hokuto Ubukata
- Department of Orthoptics and Visual Sciences, Niigata University of Health and Welfare, Niigata, JPN
| | - Mao Takagi
- Department of Orthoptics and Visual Sciences, Niigata University of Health and Welfare, Niigata, JPN
| | - Chie Tanaka
- Department of Orthoptics and Visual Sciences, Niigata University of Health and Welfare, Niigata, JPN
| | - Ai Machinaga
- Department of Orthoptics and Visual Sciences, Niigata University of Health and Welfare, Niigata, JPN
| | - Minami Miyajima
- Department of Orthoptics and Visual Sciences, Niigata University of Health and Welfare, Niigata, JPN
| | - Shunya Tatara
- Department of Orthoptics and Visual Sciences, Niigata University of Health and Welfare, Niigata, JPN
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Lima DDS, Ventura DF. A review of experimental task design in psychophysical eye tracking research. Front Hum Neurosci 2023; 17:1112769. [PMID: 37662635 PMCID: PMC10469886 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2023.1112769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2022] [Accepted: 07/28/2023] [Indexed: 09/05/2023] Open
Abstract
While eye tracking is a technique commonly used in the experimental study of higher-level perceptual processes such as visual search, working memory, reading, and scene exploration, its use for the quantification of basic visual functions (visual acuity, contrast sensitivity, color vision, motion detection) is less explored. The use of eye movement features as dependent variables in a psychophysical investigation can serve multiple roles. They can be central in studies with neurological patients or infants that cannot comply with verbal instructions, understand task demands, and/or emit manual responses. The technique may also serve a complementary role, determining the conditions under which a manual or verbal response is given, such as stimulus position in the visual field, or it can afford the analysis of new dependent variables, such as the time interval between oculomotor and manual responses. Our objective is to review the literature that applied the eye tracking technique to psychophysical problems. The two questions our review raises are: can eye movements (reflex or voluntary) be an objective index of stimulus detection in psychophysical tasks? If so, under what conditions, and how does it compare with traditional paradigms requiring manual responses? Our (non-systematic) methodological review selected studies that used video-oculography as the technique of choice and had a basic visual function as their primary object of investigation. Studies satisfying those criteria were then categorized into four broad classes reflecting their main research interest: (1) stimulus detection and threshold estimation, (2) the effects of stimulus properties on fixational eye movements, (3) the effects of eye movements on perception, and (4) visual field assessment. The reviewed studies support the idea that eye tracking is a valuable technique for the study of basic perceptual processes. We discuss methodological characteristics within each of the proposed classification area, with the objective of informing future task design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diego da Silva Lima
- Laboratory of Clinical Visual Psychophysics and Electrophysiology, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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Sumalini R, Satgunam P. Grating acuity tests for infants, young children and individuals with disabilities: A review of recent advances. Semin Ophthalmol 2023; 38:76-84. [PMID: 36073743 DOI: 10.1080/08820538.2022.2116987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Accurate measurement of visual acuity is important in managing any ocular condition. Measuring visual acuity has always remained a challenge in infants, young children and individuals with disabilities who are unable to respond verbally. A variety of pediatric acuity tests that include both grating and recognition acuities have been described in the literature, some of which are outdated. This review paper aims to summarize the currently available and recently developed grating acuity tests that can be used for infants, young children and individuals with disabilities. METHODS A review of literature was carried out to identify tests that were currently available and recently developed. Additionally, search was also done on popular search engines and websites of companies. Tests identified were screened for availability and investigated for validity through published research in peer-reviewed journals. RESULTS A total of eight grating acuity tests were identified, out of which six of them were paper-based tests. The remaining two tests were app-based tests with established data for the typically developing pediatric cohort. The repeatability indices were available only for four grating acuity tests. CONCLUSIONS This review paper summarizes the basic features of the grating acuity tests and importantly, the parameters that determine the clinical utility of the tests such as the testability, acuity range, specific cohort studied, testing time and reliability indices. The paper also discusses the recent technological advancements in the field of acuity testing for the pediatric cohort and its comparisons with the conventional methods when available.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca Sumalini
- Brien Holden Institute of Optometry and Vision Sciences, L V Prasad Eye Institute, Hyderabad, India.,Institute for Vision Rehabilitation, L V Prasad Eye Institute, Hyderabad, India.,School of Health Sciences, Division of Optometry and Visual Sciences, City, University of London, London, UK
| | - PremNandhini Satgunam
- Brien Holden Institute of Optometry and Vision Sciences, L V Prasad Eye Institute, Hyderabad, India
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Pérez Roche MT, Yam JC, Liu H, Gutierrez D, Pham C, Balasanyan V, García G, Cedillo Ley M, de Fernando S, Ortín M, Pueyo V. Visual Acuity and Contrast Sensitivity in Preterm and Full-Term Children Using a Novel Digital Test. CHILDREN (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 10:children10010087. [PMID: 36670638 PMCID: PMC9856886 DOI: 10.3390/children10010087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2022] [Revised: 12/08/2022] [Accepted: 12/21/2022] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Visual assessment in preverbal children mostly relies on the preferential looking paradigm. It requires an experienced observer to interpret the child's responses to a stimulus. DIVE (Device for an Integral Visual Examination) is a digital tool with an integrated eye tracker (ET) that lifts this requirement and automatizes this process. The aim of our study was to assess the development of two visual functions, visual acuity (VA) and contrast sensitivity (CS), with DIVE, in a large sample of children from 6 months to 14 years (y) of age, and to compare the results of preterm and full-term children. Participants were recruited in clinical settings from five countries. There were 2208 children tested, 609 of them were born preterm. Both VA and CS improved throughout childhood, with the maximum increase during the first 5 years of age. Gestational age, refractive error and age had an impact on VA results, while CS values were only influenced by age. With this study we report normative reference outcomes for VA and CS throughout childhood and validate the DIVE tests as a useful tool to measure basic visual functions in children.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Teresa Pérez Roche
- Ofthalmology Department, Miguel Servet University Hospital, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
- Aragon Institute of Heatlh Research (IIS Aragón), 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
| | | | - Hu Liu
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210029, China
| | - Diego Gutierrez
- I3A Institute for Research in Engineering, Universidad de Zaragoza, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Chau Pham
- National Institute of Ophthalmology, Hanoi 100000, Vietnam
| | | | - Gerardo García
- Strabismus and Pediatric Ophthalmology Department, Hospital de la Ceguera, APEC, Ciudad de Mexico 04030, Mexico
| | - Mauricio Cedillo Ley
- Strabismus and Pediatric Ophthalmology Department, Hospital de la Ceguera, APEC, Ciudad de Mexico 04030, Mexico
| | - Sandra de Fernando
- Ophthalmology Department, Cruces University Hospital, 48903 Barakaldo, Spain
| | | | - Victoria Pueyo
- Ofthalmology Department, Miguel Servet University Hospital, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
- Aragon Institute of Heatlh Research (IIS Aragón), 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
- Correspondence:
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Lencastre P, Bhurtel S, Yazidi A, E Mello GBM, Denysov S, Lind PG. EyeT4Empathy: Dataset of foraging for visual information, gaze typing and empathy assessment. Sci Data 2022; 9:752. [PMID: 36463232 PMCID: PMC9719458 DOI: 10.1038/s41597-022-01862-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2022] [Accepted: 11/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
We present a dataset of eye-movement recordings collected from 60 participants, along with their empathy levels, towards people with movement impairments. During each round of gaze recording, participants were divided into two groups, each one completing one task. One group performed a task of free exploration of structureless images, and a second group performed a task consisting of gaze typing, i.e. writing sentences using eye-gaze movements on a card board. The eye-tracking data recorded from both tasks is stored in two datasets, which, besides gaze position, also include pupil diameter measurements. The empathy levels of participants towards non-verbal movement-impaired people were assessed twice through a questionnaire, before and after each task. The questionnaire is composed of forty questions, extending a established questionnaire of cognitive and affective empathy. Finally, our dataset presents an opportunity for analysing and evaluating, among other, the statistical features of eye-gaze trajectories in free-viewing as well as how empathy is reflected in eye features.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Lencastre
- Dep. Computer Science, OsloMet - Oslo Metropolitan University, P.O. Box 4 St. Olavs plass, N-0130, Oslo, Norway.
- OsloMet Artificial Intelligence lab, OsloMet, Pilestredet 52, N-0166, Oslo, Norway.
- NordSTAR - Nordic Center for Sustainable and Trustworthy AI Research, Pilestredet 52, N-0166, Oslo, Norway.
| | - Samip Bhurtel
- Dep. Computer Science, OsloMet - Oslo Metropolitan University, P.O. Box 4 St. Olavs plass, N-0130, Oslo, Norway
- OsloMet Artificial Intelligence lab, OsloMet, Pilestredet 52, N-0166, Oslo, Norway
| | - Anis Yazidi
- Dep. Computer Science, OsloMet - Oslo Metropolitan University, P.O. Box 4 St. Olavs plass, N-0130, Oslo, Norway
- OsloMet Artificial Intelligence lab, OsloMet, Pilestredet 52, N-0166, Oslo, Norway
- NordSTAR - Nordic Center for Sustainable and Trustworthy AI Research, Pilestredet 52, N-0166, Oslo, Norway
| | - Gustavo B M E Mello
- Dep. Computer Science, OsloMet - Oslo Metropolitan University, P.O. Box 4 St. Olavs plass, N-0130, Oslo, Norway
- OsloMet Artificial Intelligence lab, OsloMet, Pilestredet 52, N-0166, Oslo, Norway
- NordSTAR - Nordic Center for Sustainable and Trustworthy AI Research, Pilestredet 52, N-0166, Oslo, Norway
| | - Sergiy Denysov
- Dep. Computer Science, OsloMet - Oslo Metropolitan University, P.O. Box 4 St. Olavs plass, N-0130, Oslo, Norway
- OsloMet Artificial Intelligence lab, OsloMet, Pilestredet 52, N-0166, Oslo, Norway
- NordSTAR - Nordic Center for Sustainable and Trustworthy AI Research, Pilestredet 52, N-0166, Oslo, Norway
| | - Pedro G Lind
- Dep. Computer Science, OsloMet - Oslo Metropolitan University, P.O. Box 4 St. Olavs plass, N-0130, Oslo, Norway
- OsloMet Artificial Intelligence lab, OsloMet, Pilestredet 52, N-0166, Oslo, Norway
- NordSTAR - Nordic Center for Sustainable and Trustworthy AI Research, Pilestredet 52, N-0166, Oslo, Norway
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Zhuang Y, Gu L, Chen J, Xu Z, Chan LYL, Feng L, Ye Q, Zhang S, Yuan J, Li J. The Integration of Eye Tracking Responses for the Measurement of Contrast Sensitivity: A Proof of Concept Study. Front Neurosci 2021; 15:710578. [PMID: 34456676 PMCID: PMC8387876 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2021.710578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2021] [Accepted: 07/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Contrast sensitivity (CS) is important when assessing functional vision. However, current techniques for assessing CS are not suitable for young children or non-verbal individuals because they require reliable, subjective perceptual reports. This study explored the feasibility of applying eye tracking technology to quantify CS as a first step toward developing a testing paradigm that will not rely on observers’ behavioral or language abilities. Using a within-subject design, 27 healthy young adults completed CS measures for three spatial frequencies with best-corrected vision and lens-induced optical blur. Monocular CS was estimated using a five-alternative, forced-choice grating detection task. Thresholds were measured using eye movement responses and conventional key-press responses. CS measured using eye movements compared well with results obtained using key-press responses [Pearson’s rbest–corrected = 0.966, P < 0.001]. Good test–retest variability was evident for the eye-movement-based measures (Pearson’s r = 0.916, P < 0.001) with a coefficient of repeatability of 0.377 log CS across different days. This study provides a proof of concept that eye tracking can be used to automatically record eye gaze positions and accurately quantify human spatial vision. Future work will update this paradigm by incorporating the preferential looking technique into the eye tracking methods, optimizing the CS sampling algorithm and adapting the methodology to broaden its use on infants and non-verbal individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yijing Zhuang
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Li Gu
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jingchang Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zixuan Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Lily Y L Chan
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China.,School of Optometry, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China
| | - Lei Feng
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Qingqing Ye
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Shenglan Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jin Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jinrong Li
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
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