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Gong W, Zhang Y, Chen Y, Zhao X, Wang S. A dual amplified gold nanoparticle-based biosensor for ultrasensitive and selective detection of fibrin. LUMINESCENCE 2024; 39:e4764. [PMID: 38684508 DOI: 10.1002/bio.4764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2024] [Revised: 03/28/2024] [Accepted: 04/15/2024] [Indexed: 05/02/2024]
Abstract
Ultrasensitive, selective, and non-invasive detection of fibrin in human serum is critical for disease diagnosis. So far, the development of high-performance and ultrasensitive biosensors maintains core challenges for biosensing. Herein, we designed a novel ribbon nanoprobe for ultrasensitive detection of fibrin. The probe contains gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) that can not only link with homing peptide Cys-Arg-Glu-Lys-Ala (CREKA) to recognize fibrin but also carry long DNA belts to form G-quadruplex-based DNAzyme, catalyzing the chemiluminescence of luminol-hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) reaction. Combined with the second amplification procedure of rolling circle amplification (RCA), the assay exhibits excellent sensitivity with a detection limit of 0.04 fmol L-1 fibrin based on the 3-sigma. Furthermore, the biosensor shows high specificity on fibrin in samples because the structure of antibody-fibrin-homing peptide was employed to double recognize fibrin. Altogether, the simple and inexpensive approach may present a great potential for reliable detection of biomarkers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenyue Gong
- Key Laboratory of Food Safety and Life Analysis in Universities of Shandong, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Energy Storage and Novel Cell Technology, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Liaocheng University, Liaocheng, China
| | - Yuanfu Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Food Safety and Life Analysis in Universities of Shandong, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Energy Storage and Novel Cell Technology, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Liaocheng University, Liaocheng, China
| | - Yawei Chen
- Key Laboratory of Food Safety and Life Analysis in Universities of Shandong, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Energy Storage and Novel Cell Technology, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Liaocheng University, Liaocheng, China
| | - Xue Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Food Safety and Life Analysis in Universities of Shandong, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Energy Storage and Novel Cell Technology, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Liaocheng University, Liaocheng, China
| | - Shuhao Wang
- Key Laboratory of Food Safety and Life Analysis in Universities of Shandong, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Energy Storage and Novel Cell Technology, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Liaocheng University, Liaocheng, China
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Ząbczyk M, Ariëns RAS, Undas A. Fibrin clot properties in cardiovascular disease: from basic mechanisms to clinical practice. Cardiovasc Res 2023; 119:94-111. [PMID: 36662542 PMCID: PMC10377755 DOI: 10.1093/cvr/cvad017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2022] [Revised: 10/28/2022] [Accepted: 11/14/2022] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Fibrinogen conversion into insoluble fibrin and the formation of a stable clot is the final step of the coagulation cascade. Fibrin clot porosity and its susceptibility to plasmin-mediated lysis are the key fibrin measures, describing the properties of clots prepared ex vivo from citrated plasma. Cardiovascular disease (CVD), referring to coronary heart disease, heart failure, stroke, and hypertension, has been shown to be associated with the formation of dense fibrin networks that are relatively resistant to lysis. Denser fibrin mesh characterized acute patients at the onset of myocardial infarction or ischaemic stroke, while hypofibrinolysis has been identified as a persistent fibrin feature in patients following thrombotic events or in those with stable coronary artery disease. Traditional cardiovascular risk factors, such as smoking, diabetes mellitus, hyperlipidaemia, obesity, and hypertension, have also been linked with unfavourably altered fibrin clot properties, while some lifestyle modifications and pharmacological treatment, in particular statins and anticoagulants, may improve fibrin structure and function. Prospective studies have suggested that prothrombotic fibrin clot phenotype can predict cardiovascular events in short- and long-term follow-ups. Mutations and splice variants of the fibrinogen molecule that have been proved to be associated with thrombophilia or increased cardiovascular risk, along with fibrinogen post-translational modifications, prothrombotic state, inflammation, platelet activation, and neutrophil extracellular traps formation, contribute also to prothrombotic fibrin clot phenotype. Moreover, about 500 clot-bound proteins have been identified within plasma fibrin clots, including fibronectin, α2-antiplasmin, factor XIII, complement component C3, and histidine-rich glycoprotein. This review summarizes the current knowledge on the mechanisms underlying unfavourable fibrin clot properties and their implications in CVD and its thrombo-embolic manifestations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michał Ząbczyk
- Thromboembolic Disorders Department, Institute of Cardiology, Jagiellonian University Medical College, 80 Pradnicka St, 31-202 Krakow, Poland
- Krakow Center for Medical Research and Technologies, John Paul II Hospital, Krakow, Poland
| | - Robert A S Ariëns
- Discovery and Translational Science Department, Leeds Institute of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Medicine, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
| | - Anetta Undas
- Thromboembolic Disorders Department, Institute of Cardiology, Jagiellonian University Medical College, 80 Pradnicka St, 31-202 Krakow, Poland
- Krakow Center for Medical Research and Technologies, John Paul II Hospital, Krakow, Poland
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Matrisome alterations in obesity – Adipose tissue transcriptome study on monozygotic weight-discordant twins. Matrix Biol 2022; 108:1-19. [DOI: 10.1016/j.matbio.2022.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2021] [Revised: 02/16/2022] [Accepted: 02/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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Cellular Fibronectin Containing Extra Domain A Causes Insulin Resistance via Toll-like Receptor 4. Sci Rep 2020; 10:9102. [PMID: 32499562 PMCID: PMC7272645 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-65970-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2020] [Accepted: 05/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
We determined the role of cellular fibronectin (CFN) containing the alternatively spliced extra domain A (FN-EDA) in causing insulin resistance (IR) through toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4). Circulating FN-EDA level was evaluated in mouse and rat IR models. Specific anti-FN-EDA antibody and TLR4 inhibitor were used to study its role in IR in mice. CFN protein was injected to evaluate TLR4 dependent effect of FN-EDA in IR. Furthermore, FN-EDA was estimated in blood plasma and correlated with demographic and clinical characteristics in healthy human participants (n = 38). High-fat diet feeding significantly increased circulating FN-EDA in both mouse (P = 0.03) and rat (P = 0.02) IR models. Antibody against FN-EDA protected mice from IR by increasing glucose disposal rate following glucose (P = 0.02) and insulin (P = 0.01) tolerance tests. CFN protein injection caused IR, however, TLR4 inhibitor protected the mice from CFN induced IR. Multivariate regression analysis predicted an independent positive correlation between circulating FN-EDA and fasting plasma glucose (P = 0.003) in healthy human participants. In conclusion, FN-EDA may cause IR through TLR4 by decreasing glucose disposal rate following glucose and insulin load. Targeting FN-EDA thus can be considered as a possible therapeutic strategy to delay prediabetes progression to diabetes.
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Dhanesha N, Chorawala MR, Jain M, Bhalla A, Thedens D, Nayak M, Doddapattar P, Chauhan AK. Fn-EDA (Fibronectin Containing Extra Domain A) in the Plasma, but Not Endothelial Cells, Exacerbates Stroke Outcome by Promoting Thrombo-Inflammation. Stroke 2020; 50:1201-1209. [PMID: 30909835 DOI: 10.1161/strokeaha.118.023697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Background and Purpose- Cellular Fn-EDA (fibronectin containing extra domain A) is expressed in activated endothelial cells and elevated in circulation in patients with cardiovascular diseases. Although global deficiency of Fn-EDA in mice improves stroke outcome, the specific contribution of plasma versus endothelium Fn-EDA in stroke outcome is currently unknown. We investigated the role of plasma versus endothelial Fn-EDA in stroke exacerbation in the comorbid condition of hyperlipidemia. Methods- We generated novel plasma Fn-EDA-/- ( Fn-EDA fl/fl Alb Cre) and endothelial Fn-EDA-/- ( Fn-EDA fl/fl Tie2 Cre) strains on hyperlipidemic apolipoprotein E-deficient ( ApoE-/-) background. By following the Stroke Therapy Academic Industry Roundtable guidelines, we evaluated stroke outcome in male and female mice. Susceptibility to ischemia/reperfusion injury was evaluated in 2 different models of stroke: intraluminal monofilament and embolic model on days 1, 3, and 7. Quantitative assessment of stroke outcome was evaluated by measuring infarct volume (by magnetic resonance imaging), cerebral blood flow (by laser speckle imaging), neurological and sensory-motor outcome, and postischemic thrombo-inflammation (platelet thrombi, fibrin, neutrophil, phospho-NFκB [nuclear factor κB], TNFα [tumor necrosis factor α], and IL1β [interleukin 1β]). Results- Stroke outcome was comparable in ApoE-/- Fn-EDA fl/fl Tie2 Cre and control ApoE-/- Fn-EDA fl/fl mice suggesting endothelial Fn-EDA does not contribute to stroke. ApoE-/- Fn-EDA fl/fl Alb Cre mice exhibited significantly smaller infarcts and improved neurological and sensory-motor outcome at days 1, 3, and 7 in monofilament and embolic models of stroke. Improved stroke outcome was concomitant with enhanced survival, and decreased postischemic thrombo-inflammatory response ( P<0.05 versus ApoE-/- Fn-EDA fl/fl). No sex-based differences were observed. Laser speckle imaging revealed significantly improved regional cerebral blood flow at 1 hour in ApoE-/- Fn-EDA fl/fl Alb Cre mice suggesting plasma Fn-EDA promotes postischemic secondary thrombosis. Coinfusion of anti-Fn-EDA antibody with r-tPA (recombinant tissue-type plasminogen activator) in ApoE-/- mice, 1 hour after embolization, improved stroke outcome with enhanced survival, and improved neurological outcome ( P<0.05 versus r-tPA). Conclusions- Genetic evidence suggests that plasma Fn-EDA exacerbates stroke outcome by promoting postischemic thrombo-inflammation. Interventions targeting plasma Fn-EDA may reduce brain damage after reperfusion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nirav Dhanesha
- From the Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine (N.D., M.R.C., M.J., A.B., M.N., P.D., A.K.C.), University of Iowa, Iowa City
| | - Mehul R Chorawala
- From the Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine (N.D., M.R.C., M.J., A.B., M.N., P.D., A.K.C.), University of Iowa, Iowa City
| | - Manish Jain
- From the Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine (N.D., M.R.C., M.J., A.B., M.N., P.D., A.K.C.), University of Iowa, Iowa City
| | - Abhinav Bhalla
- From the Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine (N.D., M.R.C., M.J., A.B., M.N., P.D., A.K.C.), University of Iowa, Iowa City
| | - Daniel Thedens
- Department of Radiology (D.T.), University of Iowa, Iowa City
| | - Manasa Nayak
- From the Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine (N.D., M.R.C., M.J., A.B., M.N., P.D., A.K.C.), University of Iowa, Iowa City
| | - Prakash Doddapattar
- From the Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine (N.D., M.R.C., M.J., A.B., M.N., P.D., A.K.C.), University of Iowa, Iowa City
| | - Anil K Chauhan
- From the Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Internal Medicine (N.D., M.R.C., M.J., A.B., M.N., P.D., A.K.C.), University of Iowa, Iowa City
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Jenny L, Melmer A, Laimer M, Hardy ET, Lam WA, Schroeder V. Diabetes affects endothelial cell function and alters fibrin clot formation in a microvascular flow model: A pilot study. Diab Vasc Dis Res 2020; 17:1479164120903044. [PMID: 32037878 PMCID: PMC7510361 DOI: 10.1177/1479164120903044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Diabetes is a proinflammatory and prothrombotic condition that increases the risk of vascular complications. The aim of this study was to develop a diabetic microvascular flow model that allows to study the complex interactions between endothelial cells, blood cells and plasma proteins and their effects on clot formation. Primary human cardiac microvascular endothelial cells from donors without diabetes or donors with diabetes (type 1 or type 2) were grown in a microfluidic chip, perfused with non-diabetic or diabetic whole blood, and clot formation was assessed by measuring fibrin deposition in real time by confocal microscopy. Clot formation in non-diabetic whole blood was significantly increased in the presence of endothelial cells from donors with type 2 diabetes compared with cells from donors without diabetes. There was no significant difference in clot formation between non-diabetic and diabetic whole blood. We present for the first time a diabetic microvascular flow model as a new tool to study clot formation as a result of the complex interactions between endothelial cells, blood cells and plasma proteins in a diabetes setting. We show that endothelial cells affect clot formation in whole blood, attributing an important role to the endothelium in the development of atherothrombotic complications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorenz Jenny
- Experimental Haemostasis Group, Department for BioMedical Research (DBMR), University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Andreas Melmer
- University Clinic for Diabetology, Endocrinology, Nutritional Medicine and Metabolism, University Hospital of Bern, Inselspital, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Markus Laimer
- University Clinic for Diabetology, Endocrinology, Nutritional Medicine and Metabolism, University Hospital of Bern, Inselspital, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Elaissa T Hardy
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Wilbur A Lam
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Verena Schroeder
- Experimental Haemostasis Group, Department for BioMedical Research (DBMR), University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Verena Schroeder, Experimental Haemostasis Group, Department for BioMedical Research, University of Bern, Murtenstrasse 40, 3008 Bern, Switzerland.
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Abdulwahab RA, Allaith AAA, Shinwari Z, Alaiya A, Giha HA. Association of TATA box-binding protein-associated factor RNA polymerase I subunit C (TAF1C) with T2DM. Gene 2019; 706:43-51. [PMID: 31039436 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2019.04.076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2019] [Revised: 03/29/2019] [Accepted: 04/26/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Proteins differential expression in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) can be due to etiological factors or pathological changes, such proteins can be utilized as biomarkers. Identification of a marker protein out of thousands became a feasible task during the proteomics era by using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). In this study, blood samples were obtained from 80 Bahraini subjects with and without T2DM, a subset was used for proteomic analysis by LC-MS/MS, while all samples were used for ELISA analysis of 3 proteins, TATA-box binding protein-associated factor RNA polymerase-1-C (TAF1C), ceruloplasmin (CERP) and fibronectin (FN). The former 2 proteins were selected from the T2DM-protein-panel identified by LC-MS/MS, and the latter was analyzed for validation of the setting. The main findings of the proteomic analysis are i. Identifications of 62 differentially expressed proteins in T2DM, ii. Upregulation of 71% of the identified proteins. While the ELISA analysis showed that; both TAF1C and FN were significantly increased in T2DM (P0.015 and P0.001, respectively), while CERP was not (P0.088). Logistic regression analysis: i. confirmed the above associations after correction for covariates, ii. Revealed an interaction between age and gender that affect the association of the proteins with T2DM. In conclusion, knowing that TAF1C is a prerequisite in ribosomal biogenesis, our ELISA results are suggestive of increased protein synthesis in T2DM, explaining the observed upregulation of the proteins identified by LC-MSMS. The association between T2DM and TAF1C is a novel finding that might open a new avenue in DM research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rabab Asghar Abdulwahab
- Integrated Science Division, College of Health Sciences, University of Bahrain, Manama, Bahrain; Al Jawhara Centre for Molecular Medicine and Inherited Disorders, Arabian Gulf University, Bahrain
| | | | - Zakia Shinwari
- Proteomics Unit, Stem Cell & Tissue Re-Engineering Program, King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Centre (KFSH&RC), P.O. Box 3354, Riyadh 11211, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ayodele Alaiya
- Proteomics Unit, Stem Cell & Tissue Re-Engineering Program, King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Centre (KFSH&RC), P.O. Box 3354, Riyadh 11211, Saudi Arabia
| | - Hayder A Giha
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Medicine and Medical Sciences (CMMS), Arabian Gulf University (AGU), Manama, Bahrain.
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Chorawala MR, Prakash P, Doddapattar P, Jain M, Dhanesha N, Chauhan AK. Deletion of Extra Domain A of Fibronectin Reduces Acute Myocardial Ischaemia/Reperfusion Injury in Hyperlipidaemic Mice by Limiting Thrombo-Inflammation. Thromb Haemost 2018; 118:1450-1460. [PMID: 29960272 DOI: 10.1055/s-0038-1661353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Fibronectin splicing variant containing extra domain A (Fn-EDA), which is an endogenous ligand for Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), is present in negligible amounts in the plasma of healthy humans, but markedly elevated in patients with co-morbid conditions including diabetes and hyperlipidaemia, which are risk factors for myocardial infarction (MI). Very little is known about the role of Fn-EDA in the pathophysiology of acute MI under these co-morbid conditions. MATERIALS AND METHODS We determined the role of Fn-EDA in myocardial ischaemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury in the hyperlipidaemic apolipoprotein E-deficient (ApoE-/-) mice. Infarct size, plasma cardiac troponin I (cTnI) levels, intravascular thrombosis (CD41-positive), neutrophil infiltration (Ly6 B.2-positive), neutrophil extracellular traps (citrullinated H3-positive) and myocyte apoptosis (terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP nick-end labelling-positive) were assessed in myocardial I/R injury model (1-hour ischaemia/23 hours of reperfusion). RESULTS Irrespective of gender, Fn-EDA-/-ApoE-/- mice exhibited smaller infarct size and decreased cTnI levels concomitant with reduced post-ischaemic intra-vascular thrombi, neutrophils influx, neutrophil extracellular traps and myocyte apoptosis (p < 0.05 vs. ApoE-/- mice). Genetic deletion of TLR4 attenuated myocardial I/R injury in ApoE-/- mice (p < 0.05 vs. ApoE-/- mice), but did not further reduce in Fn-EDA-/- ApoE-/- mice suggesting that Fn-EDA requires TLR4 to mediate myocardial I/R injury. Bone marrow transplantation experiments revealed that Fn-EDA exacerbates myocardial I/R injury through TLR4 expressed on the haematopoietic cells. Infusion of a specific inhibitor of Fn-EDA, 15 minutes post-reperfusion, into ApoE-/- mice attenuated myocardial I/R injury. CONCLUSION Fn-EDA exacerbates TLR4-dependent myocardial I/R injury by promoting post-ischaemic thrombo-inflammatory response. Targeting Fn-EDA may reduce cardiac damage following coronary artery re-canalization after acute MI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehul R Chorawala
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, United States
| | - Prem Prakash
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, United States
| | - Prakash Doddapattar
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, United States
| | - Manish Jain
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, United States
| | - Nirav Dhanesha
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, United States
| | - Anil K Chauhan
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, United States
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Pereira SG, Moura J, Carvalho E, Empadinhas N. Microbiota of Chronic Diabetic Wounds: Ecology, Impact, and Potential for Innovative Treatment Strategies. Front Microbiol 2017; 8:1791. [PMID: 28983285 PMCID: PMC5613173 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.01791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2017] [Accepted: 09/05/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
World Health Organization considered diabetes as one of the 20th century epidemics, estimating that over 10% of the world population is diabetic or at high risk. Self-assessment studies indicate that diabetic patients consider chronic wounds to affect their quality of life more dramatically than vision loss or renal failure. In addition to being the main reason for diabetic patients' hospitalization, the economic burden of diabetic chronic wounds is close to 1% of United Kingdom and United States health systems budgets, which exceeds the funds allocated to the treatment of some types of cancer in both countries. Among the factors preceding the emergence of chronic diabetic wounds, also designated diabetic foot ulcers (DFUs), hygiene and pressure in specific areas are under patient control, while others are still far from being understood. A triple impairment in the innervation, immune responses, and vascularization associated to DFU has been extensively studied by the scientific community. However, the skin natural microbiota has only recently emerged as having a tremendous impact on DFU emergence and evolution to chronicity. Despite the great inter- and intra-variability of microbial colonizers, ongoing efforts are now focused on deciphering the impact of commensal and pathogenic microbiota on DFU etiology, as well as the mechanisms of interkingdom microbial-host communication. This review summarizes recent work in this context and offers new microbiological perspectives that may hold potential in the prevention and treatment of chronic diabetic wounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sónia G. Pereira
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of CoimbraCoimbra, Portugal
- Polytechnic Institute of LeiriaLeiria, Portugal
| | - João Moura
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of CoimbraCoimbra, Portugal
| | - Eugénia Carvalho
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of CoimbraCoimbra, Portugal
- Department of Geriatrics, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little RockAR, United States
- Arkansas Children’s Hospital Research Institute, Little RockAR, United States
| | - Nuno Empadinhas
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of CoimbraCoimbra, Portugal
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