Comments on "Quantal mechanisms in cardiac contraction"

STEP SIZE IN ACTIVATED RABBIT SARCOMERES IS INDEPENDENT OF FILAMENT OVERLAP

Investigations carried out on single cardiac and bumblebee myofibrils have shown stepwise sarcomere-length change of ~2.7 nm.1 We have carried out parallel measurements on single myofibrils from rabbit psoas muscle. Activated specimens were released or stretched using a motor-imposed ramp. With a high-resolution algorithm, we found that step sizes were always integer multiples of 2.7 nm, whether the length change was positive or negative, and independent of ramp velocity. Also, the influence of initial sarcomere length was studied, and found to be negligible. The value 2.7 nm, seen consistently, is equal to the linear repeat of actin monomers along the thin filament, a result that ties dynamical events to molecular structure, and places narrow constraints on any proposed molecular mechanism.

Fundamental step size in single cardiac and skeletal sarcomeres

In attempting to deduce the size of the elementary molecular translation step, recent experiments using single myosin molecules translating over actin filaments have shown a consistent step size of 5.4 nm (10, 21). We have carried out parallel measurements on single myofibrils from rabbit cardiac muscle and bumblebee flight muscle. Activated specimens were released or stretched with a motor-imposed ramp, and the time course of length of individual sarcomeres was measured by projecting the image of the striations onto a linear photodiode array and tracking the spacing between A-band centroids. We confirmed the 5.4-nm step. With subnanometer precision, however, we find that this value is two times that of a more fundamental step size of 2.7 nm. Step sizes were always integer multiples of 2.7 nm, whether the length change was positive or negative. This value is equal to the linear repeat of actin monomers along the thin filament, a result that ties dynamic events to molecular structure and places narrow constraints on any proposed molecular mechanism.

Implications of quantal motor action in biological systems

We demonstrate in this paper that quantal behavior is a central feature of biological motile and contractile systems. Step-like behavior has been demonstrated in the interaction between single molecules and filaments both in the kinesin-microtubule system and in the myosin-actin filament system. We show here that the step-like molecular features appear also in the single intact sarcomere. We studied single sarcomeres of single bumble-bee myofibrils, both in the unactivated and activated states. Myofibril-length changes induced by a motor-imposed ramp were accompanied by corresponding sarcomere-length changes. However, the sarcomere-length changes were stepwise. Computer analysis of the stepwise shortening patterns revealed a step-size distribution containing multiple peaks. In the activated state, the peaks were separated by 2.7 nm per half-sarcomere which is the linear actin-subunit spacing. Thus, translation steps are an integer multiple of the actin-subunit spacing. This result parallels the one observed in the kinesin-tubulin spacing, where step size is a multiple of the tubulin-subunit spacing. In the muscle system, however, the steps are preserved on a macroscopic scale, implying high synchrony. The quantal steps are easily explained by a model in which the actin filament propels itself over stationary cross-bridges: if actin binds to the cross-bridges between steps, then the observed quantal result is inevitable. As probes of contractile phenomena approach the molecular level, the discrete unitary events underlying contraction begin to emerge. Thus, step-like behavior is observed as the single kinesin molecule translates along the microtubule, as the single myosin molecule translates over the actin filament, and as the single isolated titin molecule is stretched.

Stepwise dynamics of connecting filaments measured in single myofibrillar sarcomeres

Single relaxed myofibrils of bumblebee flight muscle were subjected to motor-imposed ramp-length changes. The image of the striations was projected onto a linear photodiode array, and sarcomere length was computed as the spacing between centroids of contiguous A-bands. Centroid position was determined by integrating the respective A-band intensity peak and computing the location at which the area on one side was equal to the other. The resulting trace of centroid to centroid span versus time was stepwise, with periods of rapid shortening alternating with periods of pause. An alternative nondiscrete sensor gave similar steps. If thick filament length remains constant, stepwise sarcomere length changes imply that length changes in the connecting filament must be stepwise. Thus, shortening of the connecting filament occurs as a sequence of discrete events rather than as a continuous event.

Identification of source of oscillations in apparent sarcomere length measured by laser diffraction

The most widely used technique for dynamic estimates of sarcomere length in muscle is laser light diffraction. We have identified conditions under which artifactual oscillations can arise in apparent sarcomere length measured by this technique and report methods to reduce the effect. Altringham et al. (1984) first reported that the diffraction angle can exhibit one cycle of oscillation for each sarcomere length displacement of the illuminated portion of the fiber. We find that the amplitude of similar oscillations is strongly dependent on the intensity of light scattered from objects near the fiber and on the spacing between fiber and scatterer. The oscillations can be eliminated by minimizing scattered light and positioning the fiber a few millimeters from sources of scattering. A theoretical description shows that oscillations of this kind are expected from interference of scattered and diffracted light. Interference fringes were observed along the meridian of the pattern, and these moved during translation of either a fiber or a grating. The movement of fringes across the diffraction order shifts the centroid back and forth and, when associated with steady shortening, can give rise to "steps" and "pauses" in apparent striation spacing.

Sarcomere dynamics during isotonic velocity transients in single frog muscle fibers

If the load on a tetanized fiber is abruptly changed to a new steady value, the ensuing fiber length change shows the well-known "isotonic velocity transient," in which the velocity oscillates before settling at some steady value. We studied sarcomere dynamics during these transients using two methods: optical diffraction and a segment-length method. Our principal aim was to determine whether these transients might be a reflection of the fact that sarcomere shortening is often found to be stepwise. We found that pauses in sarcomere shortening occurred during the low-velocity phases of the transient and that steps of sarcomere shortening occurred during the high-velocity phases. Thus the isotonic transient appears to arise from the steps. In addition to the isotonic transient, we studied the well-known isometric transient, in which fiber length is abruptly changed, and ensuing tension response is measured. Again, we found that the transient may be a reflection of the stepwise shortening pattern.

Thick filaments of striated muscle are laterally interconnected

Earlier reports from this and other laboratories indicated that thick filaments may be interconnected along their length by rung-like structures. This study was carried out to test whether these interconnections are genuine structures; whether they appear in different muscle types; and whether they arise from myosin cross-bridges. We studied insect flight muscles because of their well-known ultrastructure, and frog heart and rabbit psoas muscles secondarily. Ultrastructure was examined with freeze-fracture; with conventionally prepared thin sections; and with negative stain. All three methods showed rung-like interconnections between thick filaments. The interconnections spanned the length of the cross-bridge zone, i.e., along all but the central bare zone of the thick filament. They were observed consistently in relaxed, activated, and rigor states. We considered potential artifacts that might cause apparent interconnections where none existed in vivo, but were unable to identify a source of artifact common to all methods. Several features of the interconnections imply that for the most part they may be composed of S-1 heads from adjacent thick filaments binding to one another at their tips.

Stepwise shortening of muscle fibre segments

Shortening dynamics were measured in single fibres of frog skeletal muscle using a system that could track the spacing between hairs mounted on the fibre surface. Segment length changes were predominantly stepwise. The objective of the study was to identify potential artifacts and check their relevance. Several possible causes of artifactual steps were evaluated quantitatively and ruled out. In addition, the surface marker method and an independent length-detection method based on light diffraction were used simultaneously. The concurrence of results confirmed that it is highly unlikely that stepwise shortening could arise out of instrument artifact. Possible mechanisms underlying the phenomenon are considered.