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Davis JN, Kumordzie SM, Arnold CD, Wessells KR, Nyaaba KW, Adams KP, Tan XJ, Becher E, Vosti SA, Adu-Afarwuah S, Engle-Stone R. Consumption of Discretionary Salt and Salt from Bouillon among Households, Women, and Young Children in Northern Region, Ghana: A Mixed-Methods Study with the Condiment Micronutrient Innovation Trial (CoMIT) Project. Curr Dev Nutr 2024; 8:102088. [PMID: 38419834 PMCID: PMC10897853 DOI: 10.1016/j.cdnut.2024.102088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2023] [Revised: 01/11/2024] [Accepted: 01/24/2024] [Indexed: 03/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Background Information on salt consumption patterns is needed to inform the need for and design of salt reduction strategies. Objectives In northern Ghana, this study aimed to estimate household consumption of salt, including salt from bouillon, and compare (estimated) women and children's salt intake to global recommendations; to estimate the proportion of salt consumed from bouillon; and to identify factors, including knowledge, attitudes, and practices, associated with household salt consumption. Methods Employing mixed-methods methodology, we conducted a pilot survey (n = 369 households enrolled) and focus group discussions (FGDs; n = 20) in Tolon and Kumbungu districts (14 urban, 14 rural clusters) (clinicaltrials.gov registry: NCT04632771). Households reported purchases of discretionary salt (DS, "table salt") and bouillon cubes. DS and total salt (TS; DS+salt from bouillon) consumption for women (15-49 y) and children (2-5 y) were estimated using the Adult Male Equivalent method and compared with global recommendations (<5 g/d women; <3.75 g/d children). Women's salt intake was also predicted from urinary sodium excretion (INTERSALT equation). Associations between DS and TS consumption, as well as household and women's characteristics, were tested with minimally adjusted and multivariable linear mixed-effects models. Qualitative FGD themes were generated using the Framework Method. Results From household purchase data, estimated TS consumption exceeded global recommendations for 44% of children [median: 2.9 (IQR: 1.9, 5.2) g/d] and 60% of women [6.0 (4.0, 10.2) g/d]; 35% of children and 50% of women exceeded recommendations from DS alone. Bouillon contributed <25% of households' TS consumption. Few characteristics were associated with DS or TS consumption. Salient qualitative themes that shaped salt consumption behaviors included salt's ubiquity as a seasoning, key household members' influence on food procurement and preparation, and perceptions about health. Conclusions Purchase data suggest salt consumption among women and children exceeds recommendations, even when excluding salt from bouillon; food prepared outside the home likely further contributes. Salt reduction interventions may be warranted in this context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennie N Davis
- University of California, Department of Nutrition, Institute for Global Nutrition, Davis, CA, United States
| | - Sika M Kumordzie
- University of California, Department of Nutrition, Institute for Global Nutrition, Davis, CA, United States
| | - Charles D Arnold
- University of California, Department of Nutrition, Institute for Global Nutrition, Davis, CA, United States
| | - K Ryan Wessells
- University of California, Department of Nutrition, Institute for Global Nutrition, Davis, CA, United States
| | - Kania W Nyaaba
- University of Ghana, Department of Nutrition and Food Science, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Katherine P Adams
- University of California, Department of Nutrition, Institute for Global Nutrition, Davis, CA, United States
| | - Xiuping Jenny Tan
- University of California, Department of Nutrition, Institute for Global Nutrition, Davis, CA, United States
| | - Emily Becher
- University of California, Department of Nutrition, Institute for Global Nutrition, Davis, CA, United States
| | - Stephen A Vosti
- University of California, Department of Agriculture and Resource Economics, Institute for Global Nutrition, Davis, CA, United States
| | - Seth Adu-Afarwuah
- University of Ghana, Department of Nutrition and Food Science, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Reina Engle-Stone
- University of California, Department of Nutrition, Institute for Global Nutrition, Davis, CA, United States
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Sun F, Zhang JY, Zhao LP, Jin Q, Jin C, Wang QX, Xu JT, Yin MJ. Age differences in the impact of dietary salt on metabolism, blood pressure and cognitive function in male rats. Food Funct 2024; 15:689-703. [PMID: 38108607 DOI: 10.1039/d3fo04211a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2023]
Abstract
The influence of salt consumption on physiological processes, especially blood pressure (BP), metabolism, and cognition, remains a topical concern. While guidelines endorse reduced salt diets, there are gaps in understanding the age-specific implications and challenges in adherence. The present study delved into the differential effects of salt intake on young adult and aged male rats over a 12-week period, using control, low-, and high-salt diets. Key metrics, such as BP, cognition, and general parameters, were monitored. Our findings revealed significant age-dependent effects of salt intake on survival rates, body weight, blood sodium, blood glucose, blood lipids, BP, heart rates, and cognition. Notably, young adult rats did not show significant sodium level changes on a high-salt diet, whereas aged rats experienced increased sodium levels even on a normal salt diet. Blood glucose levels decreased significantly in aged rats on a high-salt diet but remained stable in young adults. Aged rats had the highest survival rates on low-salt diets. Low-salt diets led to reduced BP in both age groups, more significantly in young adults. Young adult rats displayed increased BP variability on both high- and low-salt diets, while a decrease in BP variability was exclusive to aged rats on a low-salt diet. There were significant differences across age groups in short-term memory, but not in long-term memory. The study provides a nuanced understanding of the age-dependent physiological effects of salt intake, suggesting the necessity of age-specific guidelines for public health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fen Sun
- College of Basic Medicine, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China.
| | - Jin-Yang Zhang
- College of Basic Medicine, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China.
| | - Lu-Ping Zhao
- College of Basic Medicine, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China.
| | - Qi Jin
- College of Basic Medicine, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China.
| | - Chao Jin
- College of Basic Medicine, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China.
| | - Qiu-Xiang Wang
- College of Basic Medicine, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China.
| | - Jun-Tao Xu
- College of Basic Medicine, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China.
| | - Meng-Jia Yin
- College of Basic Medicine, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China.
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Comment on Hogas et al. Salt, Not Always a Cardiovascular Enemy? A Mini-Review and Modern Perspective. Medicina 2022, 58, 1175. MEDICINA (KAUNAS, LITHUANIA) 2022; 59:medicina59010051. [PMID: 36676674 PMCID: PMC9866387 DOI: 10.3390/medicina59010051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2022] [Revised: 12/13/2022] [Accepted: 12/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Hogas et al. recently published their perspective on dietary salt in a mini review [...].
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Campbell NRC, He FJ, McLean RM, Cappuccio FP, Woodward M, MacGregor GA, Guichon J, Mitchell I. Dietary sodium and cardiovascular disease in China: addressing the authors' response, statements and claims. J Hypertens 2022; 40:1831-1836. [PMID: 35943106 DOI: 10.1097/hjh.0000000000003122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Norman R C Campbell
- Departments of Medicine, Physiology and Pharmacology and Community Health Sciences, and Libin Cardiovascular Institute of Alberta, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Feng J He
- Wolfson Institute of Population Health, Barts and The London School of Medicine & Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, Charterhouse Square, London, UK
| | - Rachael M McLean
- Department of Preventive and Social Medicine, Dunedin School of Medicine, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | | | - Mark Woodward
- The George Institute for Global Health, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, UK
- The George Institute for Global Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Graham A MacGregor
- Wolfson Institute of Population Health, Barts and The London School of Medicine & Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, Charterhouse Square, London, UK
| | - Juliet Guichon
- Departments of Community Health Sciences and Pediatrics, Cumming School of Medicine
| | - Ian Mitchell
- Department of Pediatrics, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
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Li X, Alu A, Wei Y, Wei X, Luo M. The modulatory effect of high salt on immune cells and related diseases. Cell Prolif 2022; 55:e13250. [PMID: 35747936 PMCID: PMC9436908 DOI: 10.1111/cpr.13250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2022] [Revised: 04/20/2022] [Accepted: 04/22/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The adverse effect of excessive salt intake has been recognized in decades. Researchers have mainly focused on the association between salt intake and hypertension. However, studies in recent years have proposed the existence of extra-renal sodium storage and provided insight into the immunomodulatory function of sodium. OBJECTIVES In this review, we discuss the modulatory effects of high salt on various innate and adaptive immune cells and immune-regulated diseases. METHODS We identified papers through electronic searches of PubMed database from inception to March 2022. RESULTS An increasing body of evidence has demonstrated that high salt can modulate the differentiation, activation and function of multiple immune cells. Furthermore, a high-salt diet can increase tissue sodium concentrations and influence the immune responses in microenvironments, thereby affecting the development of immune-regulated diseases, including hypertension, multiple sclerosis, cancer and infections. These findings provide a novel mechanism for the pathology of certain diseases and indicate that salt might serve as a target or potential therapeutic agent in different disease contexts. CONCLUSION High salt has a profound impact on the differentiation, activation and function of multiple immune cells. Additionally, an HSD can modulate the development of various immune-regulated diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xian Li
- Laboratory of Aging Research and Cancer Drug Target, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Aqu Alu
- Laboratory of Aging Research and Cancer Drug Target, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Yuquan Wei
- Laboratory of Aging Research and Cancer Drug Target, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Xiawei Wei
- Laboratory of Aging Research and Cancer Drug Target, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Min Luo
- Laboratory of Aging Research and Cancer Drug Target, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
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