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Maniarasu P, Shasane PH, Pai VH, Kuzhuppilly NIR, Ve RS, Ballae Ganeshrao S. Does the sampling frequency of an eye tracker affect the detection of glaucomatous visual field loss? Ophthalmic Physiol Opt 2024; 44:378-387. [PMID: 38149468 DOI: 10.1111/opo.13267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2023] [Revised: 12/12/2023] [Accepted: 12/13/2023] [Indexed: 12/28/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Evidence suggests that eye movements have potential as a tool for detecting glaucomatous visual field defects. This study evaluated the influence of sampling frequency on eye movement parameters in detecting glaucomatous visual field defects during a free-viewing task. METHODS We investigated eye movements in two sets of experiments: (a) young adults with and without simulated visual field defects and (b) glaucoma patients and age-matched controls. In Experiment 1, we recruited 30 healthy volunteers. Among these, 10 performed the task with a gaze-contingent superior arcuate (SARC) scotoma, 10 performed the task with a gaze-contingent biarcuate (BARC) scotoma and 10 performed the task without a simulated scotoma (NoSim). The experimental task involved participants freely exploring 100 images, each for 4 s. Eye movements were recorded using the LiveTrack Lightning eye-tracker (500 Hz). In Experiment 2, we recruited 20 glaucoma patients and 16 age-matched controls. All participants underwent similar experimental tasks as in Experiment 1, except only 37 images were shown for exploration. To analyse the effect of sampling frequency, data were downsampled to 250, 120 and 60 Hz. Eye movement parameters, such as the number of fixations, fixation duration, saccadic amplitude and bivariate contour ellipse area (BCEA), were computed across various sampling frequencies. RESULTS Two-way ANOVA revealed no significant effects of sampling frequency on fixation duration (simulation, p = 0.37; glaucoma patients, p = 0.95) and BCEA (simulation, p = 0.84; glaucoma patients: p = 0.91). BCEA showed good distinguishability in differentiating groups across different sampling frequencies, whereas fixation duration failed to distinguish between glaucoma patients and controls. Number of fixations and saccade amplitude showed variations with sampling frequency in both simulations and glaucoma patients. CONCLUSION In both simulations and glaucoma patients, BCEA consistently differentiated them from controls across various sampling frequencies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priyanka Maniarasu
- Department of Optometry, Manipal College of Health Professions, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, India
| | - Prathamesh Harshad Shasane
- Department of Optometry, Manipal College of Health Professions, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, India
| | - Vijaya H Pai
- Department of Ophthalmology, Kasturba Medical College Manipal, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, India
| | - Neetha I R Kuzhuppilly
- Department of Ophthalmology, Kasturba Medical College Manipal, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, India
| | - Ramesh S Ve
- Department of Optometry, Manipal College of Health Professions, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, India
| | - Shonraj Ballae Ganeshrao
- Department of Optometry, Manipal College of Health Professions, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, India
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Portengen BL, Porro GL, Imhof SM, Naber M. Comparison of unifocal, flicker, and multifocal pupil perimetry methods in healthy adults. J Vis 2022; 22:7. [PMID: 35998063 PMCID: PMC9424968 DOI: 10.1167/jov.22.9.7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
To this day, the most popular method of choice for testing visual field defects (VFDs) is subjective standard automated perimetry. However, a need has arisen for an objective, and less time-consuming method. Pupil perimetry (PP), which uses pupil responses to onsets of bright stimuli as indications of visual sensitivity, fulfills these requirements. It is currently unclear which PP method most accurately detects VFDs. Hence, the purpose of this study is to compare three PP methods for measuring pupil responsiveness. Unifocal (UPP), flicker (FPP), and multifocal PP (MPP) were compared by monocularly testing the inner 60 degrees of vision at 44 wedge-shaped locations. The visual field (VF) sensitivity of 18 healthy adult participants (mean age and SD 23.7 ± 3.0 years) was assessed, each under three different artificially simulated scotomas for approximately 4.5 minutes each (i.e. stimulus was not or only partially present) conditions: quadrantanopia, a 20-, and 10-degree diameter scotoma. Stimuli that were fully present on the screen evoked strongest, partially present stimuli evoked weaker, and absent stimuli evoked the weakest pupil responses in all methods. However, the pupil responses in FPP showed stronger discriminative power for present versus absent trials (median d-prime = 6.26 ± 2.49, area under the curve [AUC] = 1.0 ± 0) and MPP performed better for fully present versus partially present trials (median d-prime = 1.19 ± 0.62, AUC = 0.80 ± 0.11). We conducted the first in-depth comparison of three PP methods. Gaze-contingent FPP had best discriminative power for large (absolute) scotomas, whereas MPP performed slightly better with small (relative) scotomas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brendan L Portengen
- Ophthalmology Department, University Medical Center Utrecht, The Netherlands.,Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, The Netherlands.,
| | - Giorgio L Porro
- Ophthalmology Department, University Medical Center Utrecht, The Netherlands.,
| | - Saskia M Imhof
- Ophthalmology Department, University Medical Center Utrecht, The Netherlands.,
| | - Marnix Naber
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, The Netherlands.,
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Srinivasan R, Turpin A, McKendrick AM. Developing a Screening Tool for Areas of Abnormal Central Vision Using Visual Stimuli With Natural Scene Statistics. Transl Vis Sci Technol 2022; 11:34. [PMID: 35195703 PMCID: PMC8883145 DOI: 10.1167/tvst.11.2.34] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose Previous studies show that some visual field (VF) defects are detectable from visual search behavior; for example, when watching video. Here, we developed and tested a VF testing approach that measures the number of fixations to find targets on a background with spatial frequency content similar to natural scenes. Methods Twenty-one older controls and 20 people with glaucoma participated. Participants searched for a Gabor (6 c/°) that appeared in one of 25 possible locations within a 15° (visual angle) 1/f noise background (RMS contrast: 0.20). Procedure performance was assessed by calculating sensitivity and specificity for different combinations of control performance limits (p = 95%, 98%, 99%), number of target locations with fixations outside control performance limits (k = 0 to 25) and number of repeated target presentations (n = 1 to 20). Results Controls made a median of two to three fixations (twenty-fifth to seventy-fifth percentile: two to four) to locate the target depending on location. A VF was flagged “abnormal” when the number of fixations was greater than the p = 99% for k = 3 or more locations with n = 2 repeated presentations, giving 85% sensitivity and 95.2% specificity. The median test time for controls was 85.71 (twenty-fifth to seventy-fifth percentile: 66.49–113.53) seconds. Conclusion Our prototype test demonstrated effective and efficient screening of abnormal areas in central vision. Translational Relevance Visual search behavior can be used to detect central vision loss and may produce results that relate well to performance in natural visual environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rekha Srinivasan
- Department of Optometry and Vision Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Andrew Turpin
- School of Computing and Information Systems, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Allison M McKendrick
- Department of Optometry and Vision Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
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Gestefeld B, Marsman JB, Cornelissen FW. How Free-Viewing Eye Movements Can Be Used to Detect the Presence of Visual Field Defects in Glaucoma Patients. Front Med (Lausanne) 2021; 8:689910. [PMID: 34746166 PMCID: PMC8566763 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2021.689910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 09/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose: There is a need for more intuitive perimetric screening methods, which can also be performed by elderly people and children currently unable to perform standard automated perimetry (SAP). Ideally, these methods should also be easier to administer, such that they may be used outside of a regular clinical environment. We evaluated the suitability of various methodological and analytical approaches for detecting and localizing VFD in glaucoma patients, based on eye movement recordings. Methods: The present study consisted of two experiments. In experiment 1, we collected data from 20 glaucoma patients and 20 age-matched controls, who monocularly viewed 28 1-min video clips while their eyes were being tracked. In experiment 2, we re-analyzed a published dataset, that contained data of 44 glaucoma patients and 32 age-matched controls who had binocularly viewed three longer-duration (3, 5, and 7 min) video clips. For both experiments, we first examined if the two groups differed in the basic properties of their fixations and saccades. In addition, we computed the viewing priority (VP) of each participant. Following a previously reported approach, for each participant, we mapped their fixation locations and used kernel Principal Component Analysis (kPCA) to distinguish patients from controls. Finally, we attempted to reconstruct the location of a patient's VFD by mapping the relative fixation frequency and the VP across their visual field. Results: We found direction dependent saccade amplitudes in glaucoma patients that often differed from those of the controls. Moreover, the kPCA indicated that the fixation maps of the two groups separated into two clusters based on the first two principal components. On average, glaucoma patients had a significantly lower VP than the controls, with this decrease depending on the specific video viewed. Conclusions: It is possible to detect the presence of VFD in glaucoma patients based on their gaze behavior made during video viewing. While this corroborates earlier conclusions, we show that it requires participants to view the videos monocularly. Nevertheless, we could not reconstruct the VFD with any of the evaluated methods, possibly due to compensatory eye movements made by the glaucoma patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Birte Gestefeld
- Laboratory for Experimental Ophthalmology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Jan-Bernard Marsman
- Department of Neuroscience, Research School of Behavioral and Cognitive Neurosciences Neuro-Imaging Center, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Frans W. Cornelissen
- Laboratory for Experimental Ophthalmology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
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Soans RS, Renken RJ, John J, Bhongade A, Raj D, Saxena R, Tandon R, Gandhi TK, Cornelissen FW. Patients Prefer a Virtual Reality Approach Over a Similarly Performing Screen-Based Approach for Continuous Oculomotor-Based Screening of Glaucomatous and Neuro-Ophthalmological Visual Field Defects. Front Neurosci 2021; 15:745355. [PMID: 34690682 PMCID: PMC8526798 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2021.745355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2021] [Accepted: 09/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Standard automated perimetry (SAP) is the gold standard for evaluating the presence of visual field defects (VFDs). Nevertheless, it has requirements such as prolonged attention, stable fixation, and a need for a motor response that limit application in various patient groups. Therefore, a novel approach using eye movements (EMs) - as a complementary technique to SAP - was developed and tested in clinical settings by our group. However, the original method uses a screen-based eye-tracker which still requires participants to keep their chin and head stable. Virtual reality (VR) has shown much promise in ophthalmic diagnostics - especially in terms of freedom of head movement and precise control over experimental settings, besides being portable. In this study, we set out to see if patients can be screened for VFDs based on their EM in a VR-based framework and if they are comparable to the screen-based eyetracker. Moreover, we wanted to know if this framework can provide an effective and enjoyable user experience (UX) compared to our previous approach and the conventional SAP. Therefore, we first modified our method and implemented it on a VR head-mounted device with built-in eye tracking. Subsequently, 15 controls naïve to SAP, 15 patients with a neuro-ophthalmological disorder, and 15 glaucoma patients performed three tasks in a counterbalanced manner: (1) a visual tracking task on the VR headset while their EM was recorded, (2) the preceding tracking task but on a conventional screen-based eye tracker, and (3) SAP. We then quantified the spatio-temporal properties (STP) of the EM of each group using a cross-correlogram analysis. Finally, we evaluated the human-computer interaction (HCI) aspects of the participants in the three methods using a user-experience questionnaire. We find that: (1) the VR framework can distinguish the participants according to their oculomotor characteristics; (2) the STP of the VR framework are similar to those from the screen-based eye tracker; and (3) participants from all the groups found the VR-screening test to be the most attractive. Thus, we conclude that the EM-based approach implemented in VR can be a user-friendly and portable companion to complement existing perimetric techniques in ophthalmic clinics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rijul Saurabh Soans
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology – Delhi, New Delhi, India
- Laboratory of Experimental Ophthalmology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Remco J. Renken
- Department of Biomedical Sciences of Cells and Systems, Cognitive Neuroscience Center, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - James John
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology – Delhi, New Delhi, India
| | - Amit Bhongade
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology – Delhi, New Delhi, India
| | - Dharam Raj
- Department of Ophthalmology, Dr. Rajendra Prasad Centre for Ophthalmic Sciences, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India
| | - Rohit Saxena
- Department of Ophthalmology, Dr. Rajendra Prasad Centre for Ophthalmic Sciences, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India
| | - Radhika Tandon
- Department of Ophthalmology, Dr. Rajendra Prasad Centre for Ophthalmic Sciences, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India
| | - Tapan Kumar Gandhi
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology – Delhi, New Delhi, India
| | - Frans W. Cornelissen
- Laboratory of Experimental Ophthalmology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
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