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Ito M, Suzuki A. Discrepancies in perceived humanness between spatially filtered and unfiltered faces and their associations with uncanny feelings. Perception 2024:3010066241252355. [PMID: 38752230 DOI: 10.1177/03010066241252355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2024]
Abstract
Human and artificial features that coexist in certain types of human-like robots create a discrepancy in perceived humanness and evoke uncanny feelings in human observers. However, whether this perceptual mismatch in humanness occurs for all faces, and whether it is related to the uncanny feelings toward them, is unknown. We investigated this by examining perceived humanness for a variety of natural images of robot and human faces with different spatial frequency (SF) information: that is, faces with only low SF, middle SF, and high SF information, and intact (spatially unfiltered) faces. Uncanny feelings elicited by these faces were also measured. The results showed perceptual mismatches that LSF, MSF, and HSF faces were perceived as more human than intact faces. This was particularly true for intact robot faces that looked slightly human, which tended to evoke strong uncanny feelings. Importantly, the mismatch in perceived humanness between the intact and spatially filtered faces was positively correlated with uncanny feelings toward intact faces. Given that the human visual system performs SF analysis when processing faces, the perceptual mismatches observed in this study likely occur in real life for all faces, and as such might be a ubiquitous source of uncanny feelings in real-life situations.
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Yam J, Gong T, Xu H. A stimulus exposure of 50 ms elicits the uncanny valley effect. Heliyon 2024; 10:e27977. [PMID: 38533075 PMCID: PMC10963319 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e27977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2023] [Revised: 03/04/2024] [Accepted: 03/08/2024] [Indexed: 03/28/2024] Open
Abstract
The uncanny valley (UV) effect captures the observation that artificial entities with near-human appearances tend to create feelings of eeriness. Researchers have proposed many hypotheses to explain the UV effect, but the visual processing mechanisms of the UV have yet to be fully understood. In the present study, we examined if the UV effect is as accessible in brief stimulus exposures compared to long stimulus exposures (Experiment 1). Forty-one participants, aged 21-31, rated each human-robot face presented for either a brief (50 ms) or long duration (3 s) in terms of attractiveness, eeriness, and humanness (UV indices) in a 7-point Likert scale. We found that brief and long exposures to stimuli generated a similar UV effect. This suggests that the UV effect is accessible at early visual processing. We then examined the effect of exposure duration on the categorisation of visual stimuli in Experiment 2. Thirty-three participants, aged 21-31, categorised faces as either human or robot in a two-alternative forced choice task. Their response accuracy and variance were recorded. We found that brief stimulus exposures generated significantly higher response variation and errors than the long exposure condition. This indicated that participants were more uncertain in categorising faces in the brief exposure condition due to insufficient time. Further comparisons between Experiment 1 and 2 revealed that the eeriest faces were not the hardest to categorise. Overall, these findings indicate (1) that both the UV effect and categorical uncertainty can be elicited through brief stimulus exposure, but (2) that categorical uncertainty is unlikely to cause the UV effect. These findings provide insights towards the perception of robotic faces and implications for the design of robots, androids, avatars, and artificial intelligence agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jodie Yam
- Psychology, School of Social Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
| | - Tingchen Gong
- Department of Neuroscience, Physiology and Pharmacology, University College London, UK
| | - Hong Xu
- Psychology, School of Social Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
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Diel A, Sato W, Hsu CT, Minato T. Asynchrony enhances uncanniness in human, android, and virtual dynamic facial expressions. BMC Res Notes 2023; 16:368. [PMID: 38082445 PMCID: PMC10714471 DOI: 10.1186/s13104-023-06648-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2023] [Accepted: 11/30/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Uncanniness plays a vital role in interactions with humans and artificial agents. Previous studies have shown that uncanniness is caused by a higher sensitivity to deviation or atypicality in specialized categories, such as faces or facial expressions, marked by configural processing. We hypothesized that asynchrony, understood as a temporal deviation in facial expression, could cause uncanniness in the facial expression. We also hypothesized that the effect of asynchrony could be disrupted through inversion. RESULTS Sixty-four participants rated the uncanniness of synchronous or asynchronous dynamic face emotion expressions of human, android, or computer-generated (CG) actors, presented either upright or inverted. Asynchrony vs. synchrony expressions increased uncanniness for all upright expressions except for CG angry expressions. Inverted compared with upright presentations produced less evident asynchrony effects for human angry and android happy expressions. These results suggest that asynchrony can cause dynamic expressions to appear uncanny, which is related to configural processing but different across agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Diel
- Cardiff University School of Psychology, Cardiff, UK.
- RIKEN Institute, Kyoto, Japan.
- Clinic for Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, LVR University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, 45147, Essen, Germany.
- Center for Translational Neuro- and Behavioral Sciences (C-TNBS), University of Duisburg- Essen, 45147, Essen, Germany.
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Diel A, Sato W, Hsu CT, Minato T. The inversion effect on the cubic humanness-uncanniness relation in humanlike agents. Front Psychol 2023; 14:1222279. [PMID: 37705949 PMCID: PMC10497116 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1222279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2023] [Accepted: 08/11/2023] [Indexed: 09/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The uncanny valley describes the typically nonlinear relation between the esthetic appeal of artificial entities and their human likeness. The effect has been attributed to specialized (configural) processing that increases sensitivity to deviations from human norms. We investigate this effect in computer-generated, humanlike android and human faces using dynamic facial expressions. Angry and happy expressions with varying degrees of synchrony were presented upright and inverted and rated on their eeriness, strangeness, and human likeness. A sigmoidal function of human likeness and uncanniness ("uncanny slope") was found for upright expressions and a linear relation for inverted faces. While the function is not indicative of an uncanny valley, the results support the view that configural processing moderates the effect of human likeness on uncanniness and extend its role to dynamic facial expressions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Diel
- Guardian Robot Project, RIKEN, Kyoto, Japan
- Cardiff University School of Psychology, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
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5
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Improving evaluations of advanced robots by depicting them in harmful situations. COMPUTERS IN HUMAN BEHAVIOR 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chb.2022.107565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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6
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Diel A, Lewis M. The deviation-from-familiarity effect: Expertise increases uncanniness of deviating exemplars. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0273861. [PMID: 36048801 PMCID: PMC9436138 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0273861] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2021] [Accepted: 08/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Humanlike entities deviating from the norm of human appearance are perceived as strange or uncanny. Explanations for the eeriness of deviating humanlike entities include ideas specific to human or animal stimuli like mate selection, avoidance of threat or disease, or dehumanization; however, deviation from highly familiar categories may provide a better explanation. Here it is tested whether experts and novices in a novel (greeble) category show different patterns of abnormality, attractiveness, and uncanniness responses to distorted and averaged greebles. Greeble-trained participants assessed the abnormality, attractiveness, uncanniness of normal, averaged, and distorted greebles and their responses were compared to participants who had not previously seen greebles. The data show that distorted greebles were more uncanny than normal greebles only in the training condition, and distorted greebles were more uncanny in the training compared to the control condition. In addition, averaged greebles were not more attractive than normal greebles regardless of condition. The results suggest uncanniness is elicited by deviations from stimulus categories of expertise rather than being a purely biological human- or animal-specific response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Diel
- School of Psychology, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| | - Michael Lewis
- School of Psychology, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
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7
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Diel A, Lewis M. The uncanniness of written text is explained by configural deviation and not by processing disfluency. Perception 2022; 51:3010066221114436. [PMID: 35912496 DOI: 10.1177/03010066221114436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Deviating from human norms in human-looking artificial entities can elicit uncanny sensations, described as the uncanny valley. This study investigates in three tasks whether configural deviation in written text also increases uncanniness. It further evaluates whether the uncanniness of text is better explained by perceptual disfluency and especially deviations from specialized categories, or conceptual disfluency caused by ambiguity. In the first task, lower sentence readability predicted uncanniness, but deviating sentences were more uncanny than typical sentences despite being just as readable. Furthermore, familiarity with a language increased the effect of configural deviation on uncanniness but not the effect of non-configural deviation (blur). In the second and third tasks, semantically ambiguous words and sentences were not uncannier than typical sentences, but deviating, non-ambiguous sentences were. Deviations from categories with specialized processing mechanisms thus better fit the observed results as an explanation of the uncanny valley than ambiguity-based explanations.
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Two uncanny valleys: Re-evaluating the uncanny valley across the full spectrum of real-world human-like robots. COMPUTERS IN HUMAN BEHAVIOR 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chb.2022.107340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Schreibelmayr S, Mara M. Robot Voices in Daily Life: Vocal Human-Likeness and Application Context as Determinants of User Acceptance. Front Psychol 2022; 13:787499. [PMID: 35645911 PMCID: PMC9136288 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.787499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Accepted: 03/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The growing popularity of speech interfaces goes hand in hand with the creation of synthetic voices that sound ever more human. Previous research has been inconclusive about whether anthropomorphic design features of machines are more likely to be associated with positive user responses or, conversely, with uncanny experiences. To avoid detrimental effects of synthetic voice design, it is therefore crucial to explore what level of human realism human interactors prefer and whether their evaluations may vary across different domains of application. In a randomized laboratory experiment, 165 participants listened to one of five female-sounding robot voices, each with a different degree of human realism. We assessed how much participants anthropomorphized the voice (by subjective human-likeness ratings, a name-giving task and an imagination task), how pleasant and how eerie they found it, and to what extent they would accept its use in various domains. Additionally, participants completed Big Five personality measures and a tolerance of ambiguity scale. Our results indicate a positive relationship between human-likeness and user acceptance, with the most realistic sounding voice scoring highest in pleasantness and lowest in eeriness. Participants were also more likely to assign real human names to the voice (e.g., “Julia” instead of “T380”) if it sounded more realistic. In terms of application context, participants overall indicated lower acceptance of the use of speech interfaces in social domains (care, companionship) than in others (e.g., information & navigation), though the most human-like voice was rated significantly more acceptable in social applications than the remaining four. While most personality factors did not prove influential, openness to experience was found to moderate the relationship between voice type and user acceptance such that individuals with higher openness scores rated the most human-like voice even more positively. Study results are discussed in the light of the presented theory and in relation to open research questions in the field of synthetic voice design.
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Stein JP, Cimander P, Appel M. Power-Posing Robots: The Influence of a Humanoid Robot’s Posture and Size on its Perceived Dominance, Competence, Eeriness, and Threat. Int J Soc Robot 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s12369-022-00878-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
AbstractWhen interacting with sophisticated digital technologies, people often fall back on the same interaction scripts they apply to the communication with other humans—especially if the technology in question provides strong anthropomorphic cues (e.g., a human-like embodiment). Accordingly, research indicates that observers tend to interpret the body language of social robots in the same way as they would with another human being. Backed by initial evidence, we assumed that a humanoid robot will be considered as more dominant and competent, but also as more eerie and threatening once it strikes a so-called power pose. Moreover, we pursued the research question whether these effects might be accentuated by the robot’s body size. To this end, the current study presented 204 participants with pictures of the robot NAO in different poses (expansive vs. constrictive), while also manipulating its height (child-sized vs. adult-sized). Our results show that NAO’s posture indeed exerted strong effects on perceptions of dominance and competence. Conversely, participants’ threat and eeriness ratings remained statistically independent of the robot’s depicted body language. Further, we found that the machine’s size did not affect any of the measured interpersonal perceptions in a notable way. The study findings are discussed considering limitations and future research directions.
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Diel A, Weigelt S, Macdorman KF. A Meta-analysis of the Uncanny Valley's Independent and Dependent Variables. ACM TRANSACTIONS ON HUMAN-ROBOT INTERACTION 2022. [DOI: 10.1145/3470742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The
uncanny valley (UV)
effect is a negative affective reaction to human-looking artificial entities. It hinders comfortable, trust-based interactions with android robots and virtual characters. Despite extensive research, a consensus has not formed on its theoretical basis or methodologies. We conducted a meta-analysis to assess operationalizations of human likeness (independent variable) and the UV effect (dependent variable). Of 468 studies, 72 met the inclusion criteria. These studies employed 10 different stimulus creation techniques, 39 affect measures, and 14 indirect measures. Based on 247 effect sizes, a three-level meta-analysis model revealed the UV effect had a large effect size, Hedges’
g
= 1.01 [0.80, 1.22]. A mixed-effects meta-regression model with creation technique as the moderator variable revealed
face distortion
produced the largest effect size,
g
= 1.46 [0.69, 2.24], followed by
distinct entities, g
= 1.20 [1.02, 1.38],
realism render, g
= 0.99 [0.62, 1.36], and
morphing, g
= 0.94 [0.64, 1.24]. Affective indices producing the largest effects were
threatening, likable, aesthetics, familiarity
, and
eeriness
, and indirect measures were
dislike frequency, categorization reaction time, like frequency, avoidance
, and
viewing duration
. This meta-analysis—the first on the UV effect—provides a methodological foundation and design principles for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Diel
- School of Psychology, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Sarah Weigelt
- Department of Vision, Visual Impairments & Blindness, Faculty of Rehabilitation Sciences, Technical University of Dortmund, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Karl F. Macdorman
- School of Informatics and Computing, Indiana University, Indianapolis, IN, USA
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Diel A, Lewis M. Familiarity, orientation, and realism increase face uncanniness by sensitizing to facial distortions. J Vis 2022; 22:14. [PMID: 35344022 PMCID: PMC8982630 DOI: 10.1167/jov.22.4.14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The uncanny valley predicts aversive reactions toward near-humanlike entities. Greater uncanniness is elicited by distortions in realistic than unrealistic faces, possibly due to familiarity. Experiment 1 investigated how familiarity and inversion affect uncanniness of facial distortions and the ability to detect differences between the distorted variants of the same face (distortion sensitivity). Familiar or unfamiliar celebrity faces were incrementally distorted and presented either upright or inverted. Uncanniness ratings increased across the distortion levels, and were stronger for familiar and upright faces. Distortion sensitivity increased with increasing distortion difference levels, again stronger for familiar and upright faces. Experiment 2 investigated how face realism, familiarity, and face orientation interacted for the increase of uncanniness across distortions. Realism increased the increase of uncanniness across the distortion levels, further enhanced by upright orientation and familiarity. The findings show that familiarity, upright orientation, and high face realism increase the sensitivity of uncanniness, likely by increasing distortion sensitivity. Finally, a moderated linear function of face realism and deviation level could explain the uncanniness of stimuli better than a quadratic function. A re-interpretation of the uncanny valley as sensitivity toward deviations from familiarized patterns is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Michael Lewis
- School of Psychology, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK.,
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Designing Man's New Best Friend: Enhancing Human-Robot Dog Interaction through Dog-Like Framing and Appearance. SENSORS 2022; 22:s22031287. [PMID: 35162032 PMCID: PMC8839789 DOI: 10.3390/s22031287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2021] [Revised: 01/28/2022] [Accepted: 02/02/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
To understand how to improve interactions with dog-like robots, we evaluated the importance of “dog-like” framing and physical appearance on interaction, hypothesizing multiple interactive benefits of each. We assessed whether framing Aibo as a puppy (i.e., in need of development) versus simply a robot would result in more positive responses and interactions. We also predicted that adding fur to Aibo would make it appear more dog-like, likable, and interactive. Twenty-nine participants engaged with Aibo in a 2 × 2 (framing × appearance) design by issuing commands to the robot. Aibo and participant behaviors were monitored per second, and evaluated via an analysis of commands issued, an analysis of command blocks (i.e., chains of commands), and using a T-pattern analysis of participant behavior. Participants were more likely to issue the “Come Here” command than other types of commands. When framed as a puppy, participants used Aibo’s dog name more often, praised it more, and exhibited more unique, interactive, and complex behavior with Aibo. Participants exhibited the most smiling and laughing behaviors with Aibo framed as a puppy without fur. Across conditions, after interacting with Aibo, participants felt Aibo was more trustworthy, intelligent, warm, and connected than at their initial meeting. This study shows the benefits of introducing a socially robotic agent with a particular frame and importance on realism (i.e., introducing the robot dog as a puppy) for more interactive engagement.
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Mara M, Appel M, Gnambs T. Human-Like Robots and the Uncanny Valley. ZEITSCHRIFT FUR PSYCHOLOGIE-JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1027/2151-2604/a000486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Abstract. In the field of human-robot interaction, the well-known uncanny valley hypothesis proposes a curvilinear relationship between a robot’s degree of human likeness and the observers’ responses to the robot. While low to medium human likeness should be associated with increased positive responses, a shift to negative responses is expected for highly anthropomorphic robots. As empirical findings on the uncanny valley hypothesis are inconclusive, we conducted a random-effects meta-analysis of 49 studies (total N = 3,556) that reported 131 evaluations of robots based on the Godspeed scales for anthropomorphism (i.e., human likeness) and likeability. Our results confirm more positive responses for more human-like robots at low to medium anthropomorphism, with moving robots rated as more human-like but not necessarily more likable than static ones. However, because highly anthropomorphic robots were sparsely utilized in previous studies, no conclusions regarding proposed adverse effects at higher levels of human likeness can be made at this stage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Mara
- LIT Robopsychology Lab, Johannes Kepler University Linz, Austria
| | - Markus Appel
- Psychology of Communication and New Media, University of Würzburg, Germany
| | - Timo Gnambs
- Leibniz Institute for Educational Trajectories (LIfBi), University of Bamberg, Germany
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15
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More than appearance: the uncanny valley effect changes with a robot’s mental capacity. CURRENT PSYCHOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s12144-021-02298-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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Geiger AR, Balas B. Robot face memorability is affected by uncanny appearance. COMPUTERS IN HUMAN BEHAVIOR REPORTS 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chbr.2021.100153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
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