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Magi MS, Lopez-Vidal L, García MC, Stempin CC, Marin C, Maletto B, Palma SD, Real JP, Jimenez-Kairuz AF. Organic solvent-free benznidazole nanosuspension as an approach to a novel pediatric formulation for Chagas disease. Ther Deliv 2024:1-18. [PMID: 39101355 DOI: 10.1080/20415990.2024.2380244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2024] [Accepted: 07/11/2024] [Indexed: 08/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Aim: Benznidazole (BNZ), a class-II drug, is the primary treatment for Chagas disease, but its low aqueous solubility presents challenges in formulation and efficacy. Nanosuspensions (NS) could potentially address these issues. Methods: BNZ-NS were prepared using a simple, organic solvents-free nano-milling approach. Physicochemical characterizations were conducted on both NS and lyophilized solid-state BNZ-nanocrystals (NC). Results: BNZ-NS exhibited particle size <500 nm, an acceptable polydispersity index (0.23), high Z-potential, and physical stability for at least 90 days. BNZ-NC showed tenfold higher solubility than pure BNZ. Dissolution assays revealed rapid BNZ-NS dissolution. BNZ-NC demonstrated biocompatibility on an eukaryotic cell and enhanced BNZ efficacy against trypomastigotes of Trypanosoma cruzi. Conclusion: BNZ-NS offers a promising alternative, overcoming limitations associated with BNZ for optimized pharmacotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Sol Magi
- Departamento de Ciencias Farmacéuticas, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba (UNC), 1-4 Haya de la Torre y Medina Allende, Ciudad Universitaria, Córdoba, X5000HUA, Argentina
- Unidad de Investigación y Desarrollo en Tecnología Farmacéutica (UNITEFA), CONICET/UNC, 1-4 Haya de la Torre y Medina Allende, Ciudad Universitaria, Córdoba, X5000HUA, Argentina
| | - Lucía Lopez-Vidal
- Departamento de Ciencias Farmacéuticas, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba (UNC), 1-4 Haya de la Torre y Medina Allende, Ciudad Universitaria, Córdoba, X5000HUA, Argentina
- Unidad de Investigación y Desarrollo en Tecnología Farmacéutica (UNITEFA), CONICET/UNC, 1-4 Haya de la Torre y Medina Allende, Ciudad Universitaria, Córdoba, X5000HUA, Argentina
| | - Mónica Cristina García
- Departamento de Ciencias Farmacéuticas, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba (UNC), 1-4 Haya de la Torre y Medina Allende, Ciudad Universitaria, Córdoba, X5000HUA, Argentina
- Unidad de Investigación y Desarrollo en Tecnología Farmacéutica (UNITEFA), CONICET/UNC, 1-4 Haya de la Torre y Medina Allende, Ciudad Universitaria, Córdoba, X5000HUA, Argentina
| | - Cinthia Carolina Stempin
- Departamento de Bioquímica Clínica, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, 1-4 Haya de la Torre y Medina Allende, Ciudad Universitaria, Córdoba, X5000HUA, Argentina
- Centro de Investigaciones en Bioquímica Clínica e Inmunología (CIBICI), CONICET/UNC, 1-4 Haya de la Torre y Medina Allende, Ciudad Universitaria, Córdoba, X5000HUA, Argentina
| | - Constanza Marin
- Departamento de Bioquímica Clínica, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, 1-4 Haya de la Torre y Medina Allende, Ciudad Universitaria, Córdoba, X5000HUA, Argentina
- Centro de Investigaciones en Bioquímica Clínica e Inmunología (CIBICI), CONICET/UNC, 1-4 Haya de la Torre y Medina Allende, Ciudad Universitaria, Córdoba, X5000HUA, Argentina
| | - Belkys Maletto
- Departamento de Bioquímica Clínica, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, 1-4 Haya de la Torre y Medina Allende, Ciudad Universitaria, Córdoba, X5000HUA, Argentina
- Centro de Investigaciones en Bioquímica Clínica e Inmunología (CIBICI), CONICET/UNC, 1-4 Haya de la Torre y Medina Allende, Ciudad Universitaria, Córdoba, X5000HUA, Argentina
| | - Santiago Daniel Palma
- Departamento de Ciencias Farmacéuticas, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba (UNC), 1-4 Haya de la Torre y Medina Allende, Ciudad Universitaria, Córdoba, X5000HUA, Argentina
- Unidad de Investigación y Desarrollo en Tecnología Farmacéutica (UNITEFA), CONICET/UNC, 1-4 Haya de la Torre y Medina Allende, Ciudad Universitaria, Córdoba, X5000HUA, Argentina
| | - Juan Pablo Real
- Departamento de Ciencias Farmacéuticas, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba (UNC), 1-4 Haya de la Torre y Medina Allende, Ciudad Universitaria, Córdoba, X5000HUA, Argentina
- Unidad de Investigación y Desarrollo en Tecnología Farmacéutica (UNITEFA), CONICET/UNC, 1-4 Haya de la Torre y Medina Allende, Ciudad Universitaria, Córdoba, X5000HUA, Argentina
| | - Alvaro Federico Jimenez-Kairuz
- Departamento de Ciencias Farmacéuticas, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba (UNC), 1-4 Haya de la Torre y Medina Allende, Ciudad Universitaria, Córdoba, X5000HUA, Argentina
- Unidad de Investigación y Desarrollo en Tecnología Farmacéutica (UNITEFA), CONICET/UNC, 1-4 Haya de la Torre y Medina Allende, Ciudad Universitaria, Córdoba, X5000HUA, Argentina
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Morilla MJ, Ghosal K, Romero EL. Nanomedicines against Chagas disease: a critical review. BEILSTEIN JOURNAL OF NANOTECHNOLOGY 2024; 15:333-349. [PMID: 38590427 PMCID: PMC11000002 DOI: 10.3762/bjnano.15.30] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2023] [Accepted: 03/12/2024] [Indexed: 04/10/2024]
Abstract
Chagas disease (CD) is the most important endemic parasitosis in South America and represents a great socioeconomic burden for the chronically ill and their families. The only currently available treatment against CD is based on the oral administration of benznidazole, an agent, developed in 1971, of controversial effectiveness on chronically ill patients and toxic to adults. So far, conventional pharmacological approaches have failed to offer more effective and less toxic alternatives to benznidazole. Nanomedicines reduce toxicity and increase the effectiveness of current oncological therapies. Could nanomedicines improve the treatment of the neglected CD? This question will be addressed in this review, first by critically discussing selected reports on the performance of benznidazole and other molecules formulated as nanomedicines in in vitro and in vivo CD models. Taking into consideration the developmental barriers for nanomedicines and the degree of current technical preclinical efforts, a prospect of developing nanomedicines against CD will be provided. Not surprisingly, we conclude that structurally simpler formulations with minimal production cost, such as oral nanocrystals and/or parenteral nano-immunostimulants, have the highest chances of making it to the market to treat CD. Nonetheless, substantive political and economic decisions, key to facing technological challenges, are still required regarding a realistic use of nanomedicines effective against CD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Jose Morilla
- Nanomedicine Research and Development Centre (NARD), Science and Technology Department, National University of Quilmes, Roque Sáenz Peña 352, Bernal, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Kajal Ghosal
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Jadavpur University, 188, Raja Subodh Chandra Mallick Rd., Jadavpur, Kolkata 700032, West Bengal, India
| | - Eder Lilia Romero
- Nanomedicine Research and Development Centre (NARD), Science and Technology Department, National University of Quilmes, Roque Sáenz Peña 352, Bernal, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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3
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Paiva DDF, Matos APDS, Garófalo DDA, do Nascimento T, Monteiro MSDSDB, Santos-Oliveira R, Ricci-Junior E. Use of Nanocarriers Containing Antitrypanosomal Drugs for the Treatment of Chagas Disease. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2023; 16:1163. [PMID: 37631078 PMCID: PMC10459817 DOI: 10.3390/ph16081163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2023] [Revised: 08/09/2023] [Accepted: 08/11/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Chagas disease, caused by the Trypanosoma cruzi parasitic protozoan, is a neglected tropical disease (NTD) of significant incidence in Latin America. Transmission to humans and other mammals is mainly via the vector insect from the Reduviidae family, popularly known as the kissing bug. There are other transmission means, such as through congenital transmission, blood transfusions, organ transplantations, and the consumption of contaminated food. For more than 50 years, the disease has been treated with benznidazole and nifurtimox, which are only effective during the acute phase of the disease. In addition to their low efficacy in the chronic phase, they cause many adverse effects and are somewhat selective. The use of nanocarriers has received significant attention due to their ability to encapsulate and release therapeutic agents in a controlled manner. Generally, their diameter ranges from 100 to 300 nanometers. The objective of this scoping review was to perform a search of the literature for the use of nanocarriers as an alternative for improving the treatment of Chagas disease and to suggest future research. Bibliographic searches were carried out in the Web of Science and PubMed scientific databases from January 2012 to May 2023, using the "Chagas disease and Trypanosoma cruzi and nanoparticles" keywords, seeking to gather the largest number of articles, which were evaluated using the inclusion and exclusion criteria. After analyzing the papers, the results showed that nanocarriers offer physiological stability and safety for the transport and controlled release of drugs. They can increase solubility and selectivity against the parasite. The in vitro assays showed that the trypanocidal activity of the drug was not impaired after encapsulation. In the in vivo assays, parasitemia reduction and high survival and cure rates in animals were obtained during both phases of the disease using lower doses when compared to the standard treatment. The scoping review showed that nanocarriers are a promising alternative for the treatment of Chagas disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diogo de Freitas Paiva
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology, Department of Drugs and Medications, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, Brazil; (D.d.F.P.); (A.P.d.S.M.); (D.d.A.G.); (T.d.N.); (M.S.d.S.d.B.M.)
| | - Ana Paula dos Santos Matos
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology, Department of Drugs and Medications, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, Brazil; (D.d.F.P.); (A.P.d.S.M.); (D.d.A.G.); (T.d.N.); (M.S.d.S.d.B.M.)
| | - Denise de Abreu Garófalo
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology, Department of Drugs and Medications, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, Brazil; (D.d.F.P.); (A.P.d.S.M.); (D.d.A.G.); (T.d.N.); (M.S.d.S.d.B.M.)
| | - Tatielle do Nascimento
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology, Department of Drugs and Medications, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, Brazil; (D.d.F.P.); (A.P.d.S.M.); (D.d.A.G.); (T.d.N.); (M.S.d.S.d.B.M.)
| | - Mariana Sato de Souza de Bustamante Monteiro
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology, Department of Drugs and Medications, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, Brazil; (D.d.F.P.); (A.P.d.S.M.); (D.d.A.G.); (T.d.N.); (M.S.d.S.d.B.M.)
| | - Ralph Santos-Oliveira
- Nuclear Engineering Institute (IEN), University Campus of the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-906, Brazil;
| | - Eduardo Ricci-Junior
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology, Department of Drugs and Medications, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, Brazil; (D.d.F.P.); (A.P.d.S.M.); (D.d.A.G.); (T.d.N.); (M.S.d.S.d.B.M.)
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Arrua EC, Hartwig O, Loretz B, Murgia X, Ho DK, Bastiat G, Lehr CM, Salomón CJ. Formulation of benznidazole-lipid nanocapsules: Drug release, permeability, biocompatibility, and stability studies. Int J Pharm 2023:123120. [PMID: 37307960 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2023.123120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2023] [Revised: 06/05/2023] [Accepted: 06/07/2023] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Benznidazole, a poorly soluble in water drug, is the first-line medication for the treatment of Chagas disease, but long treatment periods at high dosages cause several adverse effects with insufficient activity in the chronic phase. According to these facts, there is a serious need for novel benznidazole formulations for improving the chemotherapy of Chagas disease. Thus, this work aimed to incorporate benznidazole into lipid nanocapsules for improving its solubility, dissolution rate in different media, and permeability. Lipid nanocapsules were prepared by the phase inversion technique and were fully characterized. Three formulations were obtained with a diameter of 30, 50, and 100 nm and monomodal size distribution with a low polydispersity index and almost neutral zeta potential. Drug encapsulation efficiency was between 83 and 92% and the drug loading was between 0.66 and 1.04%. Loaded formulations were stable under storage for one year at 4 °C. Lipid nanocapsules were found to protect benznidazole in simulated gastric fluid and provide a sustained release platform for the drug in a simulated intestinal fluid containing pancreatic enzymes. The small size and the almost neutral surface charge of these lipid nanocarriers improved their penetration through mucus and such formulations showed a reduced chemical interaction with gastric mucin glycoproteins. LNCs. The incorporation of benznidazole in lipid nanocapsules improved the drug permeability across intestinal epithelium by 10-fold compared with the non-encapsulated drug while the exposure of the cell monolayers to these nanoformulations did not affect the integrity of the epithelium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva C Arrua
- Institute of Chemistry, IQUIR-CONICET, National Council Research, Suipacha 531, 2000 Rosario, Argentina
| | - Olga Hartwig
- Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland (HIPS), Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI), Saarland University, 66123 Saarbruecken, Germany; Pharmacy Department, Faculty of Pharmaceutical and Biochemical Sciences, National University of Rosario, Suipacha, 531, 2000 Rosario, Argentina
| | - Brigitta Loretz
- Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland (HIPS), Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI), Saarland University, 66123 Saarbruecken, Germany
| | - Xabier Murgia
- Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland (HIPS), Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI), Saarland University, 66123 Saarbruecken, Germany
| | - Duy-Khiet Ho
- Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland (HIPS), Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI), Saarland University, 66123 Saarbruecken, Germany
| | - Guillaume Bastiat
- LUNAM Université, Micro et Nanomédecines Biomimétiques, F-49933, Angers, France and Inserm, U1066 IBS-CHU, 4 rue Larrey, F-49933 Angers Cédex 9, France
| | - Claus-Michael Lehr
- Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland (HIPS), Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI), Saarland University, 66123 Saarbruecken, Germany; Department of Pharmacy, Saarland University, 66123 Saarbruecken, Germany
| | - Claudio J Salomón
- Institute of Chemistry, IQUIR-CONICET, National Council Research, Suipacha 531, 2000 Rosario, Argentina; Pharmacy Department, Faculty of Pharmaceutical and Biochemical Sciences, National University of Rosario, Suipacha, 531, 2000 Rosario, Argentina.
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5
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Scariot DB, Staneviciute A, Zhu J, Li X, Scott EA, Engman DM. Leishmaniasis and Chagas disease: Is there hope in nanotechnology to fight neglected tropical diseases? Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:1000972. [PMID: 36189341 PMCID: PMC9523166 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.1000972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2022] [Accepted: 08/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Nanotechnology is revolutionizing many sectors of science, from food preservation to healthcare to energy applications. Since 1995, when the first nanomedicines started being commercialized, drug developers have relied on nanotechnology to improve the pharmacokinetic properties of bioactive molecules. The development of advanced nanomaterials has greatly enhanced drug discovery through improved pharmacotherapeutic effects and reduction of toxicity and side effects. Therefore, highly toxic treatments such as cancer chemotherapy, have benefited from nanotechnology. Considering the toxicity of the few therapeutic options to treat neglected tropical diseases, such as leishmaniasis and Chagas disease, nanotechnology has also been explored as a potential innovation to treat these diseases. However, despite the significant research progress over the years, the benefits of nanotechnology for both diseases are still limited to preliminary animal studies, raising the question about the clinical utility of nanomedicines in this field. From this perspective, this review aims to discuss recent nanotechnological developments, the advantages of nanoformulations over current leishmanicidal and trypanocidal drugs, limitations of nano-based drugs, and research gaps that still must be filled to make these novel drug delivery systems a reality for leishmaniasis and Chagas disease treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Debora B. Scariot
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Chemistry of Life Processes Institute, and Simpson Querrey Institute, Northwestern University, Evanston and Chicago, IL, United States
- *Correspondence: Debora B. Scariot,
| | - Austeja Staneviciute
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Chemistry of Life Processes Institute, and Simpson Querrey Institute, Northwestern University, Evanston and Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Jennifer Zhu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Chemistry of Life Processes Institute, and Simpson Querrey Institute, Northwestern University, Evanston and Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Xiaomo Li
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, United States
- Department of Pathology, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Evan A. Scott
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Chemistry of Life Processes Institute, and Simpson Querrey Institute, Northwestern University, Evanston and Chicago, IL, United States
| | - David M. Engman
- Department of Pathology, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, United States
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Rolon M, Hanna E, Vega C, Coronel C, Dea-Ayuela MA, Serrano DR, Lalatsa A. Solid Nanomedicines of Nifurtimox and Benznidazole for the Oral Treatment of Chagas Disease. Pharmaceutics 2022; 14:pharmaceutics14091822. [PMID: 36145570 PMCID: PMC9504116 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14091822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2022] [Revised: 08/22/2022] [Accepted: 08/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Chagas disease (CD) is a parasitic zoonosis endemic in Central and South America affecting nearly 10 million people, with 100 million people at high risk of contracting the disease. Treatment is only effective when received at the early stages of the disease and it involved two drugs (nifurtimox (NFX) and benznidazole (BNZ)). Both treatments require multiple daily administrations of high doses, suffer from variable efficacy and insufficient efficacy in chronic CD, many side effects, and a very long duration of treatment that results in poor compliance, while combined available therapies that lead to reduced duration of treatment are not available and polypharmacy reduces compliance and increases the cost further. Here we present self-nanoemulsified drug delivery systems (SNEDDS) able to produce easily scalable combined formulations of NFX and BNZ that can allow for tailoring of the dose and can be easily converted to oral solid dosage form by impregnation on mesoporous silica particles. SNEDDS demonstrated an enhanced solubilisation capacity for both drugs as demonstrated by flow-through studies and in vitro lipolysis studies. High loading of SNEDDS to Syloid 244 and 3050 silicas (2:1 w/w) allowed clinically translatable amounts of both NFX and BNZ to be loaded. Tablets prepared from NFX-BNZ combined SNEDDS loaded on Syloid 3050 silicas demonstration near complete dissolution in the flow through cell apparatus compared to NFX and BNZ commercial tablets respectively (Lampit® and Rochagan®). NFX-BNZ-SNEDDS demonstrated nanomolar efficacy in epimastigotes and amastigotes of T. cruzi with acceptable selectivity indexes and demonstrated enhanced survival and reduced parasitaemia in acute murine experimental models of CD. Thus, the results presented here illustrate the ability for an easily scalable and personalised combination oral therapy prepared from GRAS excipients, enabling treatment access worldwide for the treatment of CD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam Rolon
- Centro para el Desarrollo de la Investigacion Científica (CEDIC), Manduvirá 635 entre 15 de Agosto y O’Leary, Asuncion 1255, Paraguay
| | - Eustine Hanna
- Biomaterials, Bio-Engineering and Nanomedicines (BioN) Laboratory, Institute of Biomedical and Biomolecular Sciences, School of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Portsmouth, White Swan Road, Portsmouth PO1 2DT, UK
| | - Celeste Vega
- Centro para el Desarrollo de la Investigacion Científica (CEDIC), Manduvirá 635 entre 15 de Agosto y O’Leary, Asuncion 1255, Paraguay
| | - Cathia Coronel
- Centro para el Desarrollo de la Investigacion Científica (CEDIC), Manduvirá 635 entre 15 de Agosto y O’Leary, Asuncion 1255, Paraguay
| | - Maria Auxiliadora Dea-Ayuela
- Departamento de Farmacia, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad CEU Cardenal Herrera, Edificio Seminario s/n, Moncada, 46113 Valencia, Spain
| | - Dolores R. Serrano
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Food Technology, Instituto Universitario de Farmacia Industrial (IUFI), School of Pharmacy, University Complutense de Madrid, Plaza Ramón y Cajal s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain
- Correspondence: (D.R.S.); (A.L.); Tel.: +44-141-548-2675 (A.L.)
| | - Aikaterini Lalatsa
- Biomaterials, Bio-Engineering and Nanomedicines (BioN) Laboratory, Institute of Biomedical and Biomolecular Sciences, School of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Portsmouth, White Swan Road, Portsmouth PO1 2DT, UK
- School of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, John Arbuthnot Building, Robertson Wing, University of Strathclyde, 161 Cathedral Street, Glasgow G4 0RE, UK
- Correspondence: (D.R.S.); (A.L.); Tel.: +44-141-548-2675 (A.L.)
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