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Hong L, Lin Y, Yang X, Wu T, Zhang Y, Xie Z, Yu J, Zhao H, Yi G, Fu M. A Narrative Review of STAT Proteins in Diabetic Retinopathy: From Mechanisms to Therapeutic Prospects. Ophthalmol Ther 2022; 11:2005-2026. [PMID: 36208390 PMCID: PMC9547576 DOI: 10.1007/s40123-022-00581-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2022] [Accepted: 09/20/2022] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Diabetic retinopathy (DR), a blinding disease, is one of the high-incidence chronic complications of diabetes. However, the current treatment for DR is mainly based on advanced pathological changes, which cannot reverse pre-existing retinal tissue damage and visual impairment. Signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) proteins are essential in DR through early and late stages. They participate in the early stage of DR through multiple mechanisms and have a strong proangiogenic effect in the late stage. Inhibiting STAT proteins activity has also achieved a significant effect in reversing the pathological changes of DR. Thus, STAT proteins are expected to be an effective therapeutic target in the early stage of DR and can make up for inadequate late treatment. This review introduces the structure, signal transduction mode, and biological functions of STAT proteins in detail and focuses on their role in the mechanism of DR. We also summarize the current research on STAT-related biological agents in DR, aiming to provide a theoretical basis for the treatment of DR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Libing Hong
- Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China.,The Second Clinical School, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Yongqi Lin
- Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China.,The Second Clinical School, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiongyi Yang
- Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China.,The Second Clinical School, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Tong Wu
- The First Clinical School, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yuxi Zhang
- Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China.,The Second Clinical School, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhuohang Xie
- Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China.,The Second Clinical School, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Jieli Yu
- Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, People's Republic of China.,The Second Clinical School, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, People's Republic of China
| | - Hejia Zhao
- School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Guoguo Yi
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Sixth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-Sen University, No. 26, Erheng Road, Yuancun, Tianhe, Guangzhou, Guangdong, People's Republic of China.
| | - Min Fu
- Department of Ophthalmology, Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, People's Republic of China.
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Almalki WH. The sepsis induced defective aggravation of immune cells: a translational science underling chemico-biological interactions from altered bioenergetics and/or cellular metabolism to organ dysfunction. Mol Cell Biochem 2021; 476:2337-2344. [PMID: 33586093 DOI: 10.1007/s11010-021-04066-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2020] [Accepted: 01/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Sepsis is described as a systemic immune response of the body to an infectious process that might result in dysfunctional organs that may lead to death. In clinical practice, sepsis is considered a medical emergency. The initial event in sepsis caused by a deregulated host response towards harmful microorganisms that leads to an aggravated systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) to tackle with pathogen invasion and a compensatory anti-inflammatory response syndrome (CARS) that lasts for several days. The inflammatory response and the cellular damage as well as the risk of an organ dysfunction are in direct proportion. Even though, the pathogenesis of sepsis remains unclear, many studies have shown evidence of role of oxidants and antioxidants in sepsis. The altered innate and adaptive immune cell and upregulated production and release of cytokines and chemokines most probably due to involvement of JAK-STAT pathway, disturbance in redox homeostasis due to low clearance of lactate and other oxidative stressors, contributes to sepsis process to organ dysfunction which contribute to increase rates of mortality among these patients. Hence, the treatment strategies for sepsis include antibiotics, ventilator and blood glucose management and other strategies for resuscitation are rapidly progressing. In the current review, we mainly concentrate on throwing light on the main molecular aspects and chemico-biological interactions that shows involvement in pathways manipulating alteration in physiology of immune cells (innate and adaptive) that change the bioenergetics/cellular metabolism to organ dysfunction and correlation of these altered pathway, improve the understating for new therapeutic target for sepsis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Waleed Hassan Almalki
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, UMM AL-QURA UNIVERSITY, Makkah, Saudi Arabia.
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Schweitzer F, Tarantelli R, Rayens E, Kling HM, Mattila JT, Norris KA. Monocyte and Alveolar Macrophage Skewing Is Associated with the Development of Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension in a Primate Model of HIV Infection. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2019; 35:63-74. [PMID: 30229666 DOI: 10.1089/aid.2018.0132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
We investigated the relationship of monocytes, alveolar, and tissue-resident macrophage populations and the development of pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) in a nonhuman primate model of HIV infection. A prospective study of simian immunodeficiency virus-associated pulmonary arterial hypertension (SIV-PAH) was done. Rhesus macaques (n = 21) were infected with SIV. Blood, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF), and lung tissue were analyzed for monocyte and macrophage phenotypes and inflammatory mediators. Serial right heart catheterizations were performed at three time points throughout the study to assess hemodynamic alterations and the development of PAH. All 21 animals showed similar courses of SIV infection with an increasing proinflammatory plasma environment. At 6 months postinfection (mpi), 11 of 21 animals developed SIV-PAH (mPAP ≤25 mmHg; right ventricular systolic pressure [RVSP] ≤36 mmHg). PAH+ animals had an increased frequency of proinflammatory, nonclassical monocytes (CD14dimCD16+) (p = .06) in the peripheral blood and CD14+CCR7-CD163-CD206+ macrophages (p = .04) in BALF compared with PAH- animals at 6 mpi. Increased frequencies of these monocyte and macrophage phenotypes correlated with elevated RVSP (p = .04; p = .03). In addition, PAH+ animals had greater frequencies of tissue resident inflammatory M1-like CD68+STAT1+ (p = .001) and M2a-like CD68+STAT3+ macrophages (p = .003) and a lower frequency of anti-inflammatory M2c-like CD68+STAT6+ macrophages (p = .003) as well as fewer interleukin (IL)-10+ cells (p = .01). The results suggest that HIV-PAH is associated with skewing of monocytes and alveolar macrophages toward a proinflammatory, profibrotic phenotype. Furthermore, PAH+ animals may have diminished capacity to downregulate exaggerated chronic inflammation, as indicated by lower levels of IL-10 in PAH+ animals, contributing to disease progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Finja Schweitzer
- Center for Vaccines and Immunology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia
| | - Rebecca Tarantelli
- Center for Vaccines and Immunology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia
| | - Emily Rayens
- Center for Vaccines and Immunology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia
| | - Heather M. Kling
- Department of Immunology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Joshua T. Mattila
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Karen A. Norris
- Center for Vaccines and Immunology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia
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Summers SA, Phoon RKS, Odobasic D, Dewage L, Kitching AR, Holdsworth SR. Signal transducer and activation of transcription 6 (STAT6) regulates T helper type 1 (Th1) and Th17 nephritogenic immunity in experimental crescentic glomerulonephritis. Clin Exp Immunol 2011; 166:227-34. [PMID: 21985369 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2249.2011.04437.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Experimental crescentic glomerulonephritis is driven by systemic cellular immune responses. A pathogenic role for T helper type 1 (Th1) and Th17 cells is well established. T-bet, a key transcription factor required for Th1 lineage commitment, and retinoic acid-related orphan receptor-γt (Rorγt), a key Th17 transcription factor, are required for full expression of disease. Similarly, several Th1- and Th17-associated cytokines have been implicated in disease augmentation. The role of Th2 cells in the disease is less clear, although Th2-associated cytokines, interleukin (IL)-4 and IL-10, are protective. We sought to determine the role of signal transducer and activation of transcription 6 (STAT6), a key regulator of Th2 responses, in experimental crescentic glomerulonephritis. Compared to wild-type mice, histological and functional renal injury was enhanced significantly in STAT6(-/-) mice 21 days after administration of sheep anti-mouse glomerular basement membrane globulin. Consistent with the enhanced renal injury, both Th1 and Th17 nephritogenic immune responses were increased in STAT6(-/-) mice. Conversely, production of IL-5, a key Th2-associated cytokine, was decreased significantly in STAT6(-/-) mice. Early in the disease process systemic mRNA expression of T-bet and Rorγ was increased in STAT6(-/-) mice. We conclude that STAT6 is required for attenuation of Th1 and Th17 nephritogenic immune responses and protection from crescentic glomerulonephritis.
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Affiliation(s)
- S A Summers
- Centre for Inflammatory Diseases, Monash University Department of Medicine, VIC, Australia
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Wu X, Gao H, Ke W, Giese RW, Zhu Z. The homeobox transcription factor VentX controls human macrophage terminal differentiation and proinflammatory activation. J Clin Invest 2011; 121:2599-613. [PMID: 21670496 DOI: 10.1172/jci45556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2010] [Accepted: 04/27/2011] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Macrophages are critical players in both innate and adaptive immunity. While the exogenous signaling events leading to the terminal differentiation of macrophages from monocytes have been studied extensively, the underlying intracellular transcriptional mechanisms remain poorly understood. Here we report that the homeobox transcription factor VentX plays a pivotal role in human macrophage terminal differentiation and proinflammatory function. Our study showed that VentX expression was upregulated upon human primary monocyte-to-macrophage differentiation induced by cytokines such as M-CSF, GM-CSF, and IL-3. Moreover, ablation of VentX expression in primary monocytes profoundly impaired their differentiation to macrophages, and ectopic expression of VentX in a myeloid progenitor cell line triggered its differentiation with prominent macrophage features. Further analysis revealed that VentX was pivotal for the proinflammatory response of terminally differentiated macrophages. Mechanistically, VentX was found to control expression of proteins key to macrophage differentiation and activation, including M-CSF receptor. Importantly, preliminary analysis of gene expression in leukocytes from patients with autoimmune diseases revealed a strong correlation between levels of VentX and those of proinflammatory cytokines. Our results provide mechanistic insight into the crucial roles of VentX in macrophage differentiation and proinflammatory activation and suggest that dysregulation of VentX may play a role in the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoming Wu
- Department of Medicine, Gastroenterology Division, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
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Galloway E, Shin T, Huber N, Eismann T, Kuboki S, Schuster R, Blanchard J, Wong HR, Lentsch AB. Activation of hepatocytes by extracellular heat shock protein 72. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2008; 295:C514-20. [PMID: 18508912 DOI: 10.1152/ajpcell.00032.2008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Heat shock protein (HSP) 72 is released by cells during stress and injury. HSP-72 also stimulates the release of cytokines in macrophages by binding to Toll-like receptors (TLR) 2 and 4. Circulating levels of HSP-72 increase during hepatic ischemia-reperfusion injury. The role of extracellular HSP-72 (eHSP-72) in the injury response to ischemia-reperfusion is unknown. Therefore, the objective of the present study was to determine whether eHSP-72 has any direct effects on hepatocytes. Primary mouse hepatocytes were treated with purified human recombinant HSP-72. Conditioned media were evaluated by ELISA for the cytokines, TNF-alpha, IL-6, and macrophage inflammatory protein 2 (MIP-2). Stimulation of hepatocytes with eHSP-72 did not induce production of TNFalpha or IL-6 but resulted in dose-dependent increases in MIP-2 production. To evaluate the pathway responsible for this response, expression of TLR2 and TLR4 was confirmed on hepatocytes by immunohistochemistry. Hepatocyte production of MIP-2 was significantly decreased in hepatocytes obtained from TLR2 or TLR4 knockout mice. MIP-2 production was found to be partially dependent on NF-kappaB because inhibition of NF-kappaB with Bay 11-7085 significantly decreased eHSP-72-induced MIP-2 production. Inhibitors of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase or c-Jun NH(2)-terminal kinase had no effect on production of MIP-2 induced by eHSP-72. The data suggest that eHSP-72 binds to TLR2 and TLR4 on hepatocytes and signals through NF-kappaB to increase MIP-2 production. The fact that eHSP-72 did not increase TNF-alpha or IL-6 production may be indicative of a highly regulated signaling pathway downstream from TLR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Galloway
- The Laboratory of Trauma, Sepsis and Inflammation Research, Department of Surgery, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45267-0558, USA
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Abstract
Signal transducer and activator of transcription 4 (STAT4) is a central mediator in generating inflammation during protective immune responses and immune-mediated diseases. In the 8 yr since their first description, STAT4-deficient mice have defined the role of STAT4 in a variety of in vivo model systems. Despite the extensive study and use of these mice, the exact role of STAT4 in vivo is still unclear. In this review, I focus on describing the phenotypes of STAT4-deficient immune responses to pathogens and in diseases. Comparing the effects of STAT4 deficiency among numerous model systems will further enhance the development of a systemic model of STAT4 function in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark H Kaplan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Walther Oncology Center, Indiana University School of Medicine, 950 West Walnut Street, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA.
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