Young Disadvantaged Men as Fathers

Re-thinking Stepfathers' Contributions: Fathers, Stepfathers, and Child Wellbeing

Using data from a contemporary cohort of children, we revisit the question of whether children benefit from being close to and engaging in activities with a stepfather. We deploy the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, a birth cohort study of nearly 5000 children born in US cities in 1998-2000, with a large oversample of nonmarital births. We explore the relationships between stepfathers' closeness and active engagement and youth's internalizing and externalizing behaviors and school connectedness at ages 9 and 15 for between 550 and 740 children (depending on the wave) with stepfathers. We find that the emotional tenor of the relationship and level of active engagement between youth and their stepfathers are associated with reduced internalizing behaviors and higher school connectedness. Our findings suggest that stepfathers' roles seem to have evolved in ways that are more beneficial to their adolescent stepchildren than was previously the case.

Intergenerational Pathways Linking Mothers' Adverse Childhood Experiences and Children's Social-Emotional Problems

Despite the persistent hypothesis that adverse childhood experiences (ACE) have intergenerational implications, empirical research documenting the effects and the mechanisms of transmission remains underdeveloped. This study examined the intergenerational effects of mothers' adverse childhood experiences on their offspring's social-emotional development and whether the association was mediated by mothers' mental health, adult adversity, and perceptions of paternal involvement. The study sample included 831 mothers (19-49 years old, 47.5% White) with children aged 12-48 months who participated in a longitudinal investigation of low-income families in Wisconsin. ACEs were assessed by home visitors, and two waves of survey data were collected by researchers to assess demographics, mediators, and social-emotional outcomes. A path analysis showed that the association between maternal ACEs and children's social-emotional problems was fully mediated, with postpartum mental health acting as a primary mechanism. Implications for intervention and future research directions are discussed.

Specific domains of early parenting, their heritability and differential association with adolescent behavioural and emotional disorders and academic achievement

Variations in parenting across large populations have rarely been described. It also remains unclear which specific domains of parenting are important for which specific offspring developmental outcomes. This study describes different domains of early parenting behaviours and their genetic heritability, then determines the extent to which specific domains of parenting are associated with later offspring outcomes. Parenting behaviours (birth to 3 years) were extracted from self-reported questionnaires administered to 12,358 mothers from the UK-based birth cohort study, the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children and modelled as a latent factor using Confirmatory Factor Analysis. Genetic heritability and correlations between parenting factors were estimated using genome-wide complex trait analysis. Three parenting factors were derived: parental enjoyment, conflictual relationships and stimulation; all showed low genetic heritability. There was no evidence of association between parental enjoyment and offspring behavioural disorders and depressed mood. Stimulation was associated with better English grades (standardised β = 0.195, p < 0.001) and enjoyment was negatively associated with English grades (β = - 0.244, p =  < 0.001). Conflictual relationships were associated with higher risk of offspring behavioural disorders (β = 0.228, p = 0.010) and depressed mood (β = 0.077, p = 0.005). Higher enjoyment reduced the association between conflict and behavioural problems (interaction term β = 0.113, p < 0.001). We found evidence for predictive specificity of early parenting domains for offspring outcomes in adolescence. Early stimulation, unlike enjoyment, promoted later educational achievement. Conflictual relationships were associated with greater risk of behavioural problems, buffered by increased enjoyment. These findings hold implications for parenting interventions, guiding their focus according to the specificity of parenting domains and their long-term outcomes in children.

Nonstandard Work Schedules and Father Involvement Among Resident and Nonresident Fathers

OBJECTIVE

We examined associations between resident and nonresident fathers' nonstandard work schedules, work hours, and their level of involvement with their young children in the United States.

BACKGROUND

Nonstandard work schedules may negatively impact father involvement either directly by reducing fathers' availability or indirectly by taking a toll on their wellbeing. Prior research on nonstandard schedules and father involvement has focused on two-parent households, yet nonstandard schedules may pose similar or greater challenges to nonresident fathers.

METHOD

Using data on 1598 resident and 759 nonresident fathers from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, we estimated regression models to test associations between fathers' nonstandard work schedules, work hours, and fathers' involvement-accessibility, engagement, and responsibility-controlling for confounding factors and using residualized change models. For nonresident fathers only, we estimated associations between nonstandard schedules, work hours, and child support.

RESULTS

Among nonresident fathers, working evenings was associated with lower engagement relative to working standard hours only and other nonstandard schedules, and in some models, working a variable schedule was associated with greater responsibility relative to other nonstandard schedules. Among resident fathers, working any nonstandard schedule versus standard hours only was associated with greater responsibility, and total work hours were negatively associated with each measure of involvement.

CONCLUSION

Findings suggest that fathers' work schedules may be an important factor in understanding resident and nonresident fathers' involvement with their young children.

Reproductive justice and support for young fathers

The current article addresses the interests and contributions of fathers to child development and well-being within a reproductive and social justice framework. We present an overview of research on the role of fathers in the lives of children from the prenatal period through early childhood, with an emphasis on fathers as partners and caregivers in promoting the reproductive health and safety of women and the healthy development of young children. We explore especially the challenges of young, at-risk fathers as well as system and practice opportunities that support their contributions as partners and parents. Our goal of the article is to extend the discourse on reproductive and social justice to include the shared responsibility of all parents and facilitate circumstances whereby children experience the support needed to become nurturing caregivers for the next generation.

Contributions of Research based on the PSID Child Development Supplement

The Child Development Supplement to the PSID (PSID-CDS) began in 1997 with a cohort of 2,394 households including 3,586 children. Since that auspicious start, three waves of the first cohort were collected - 1997, 2002-03, and 2007-08 - and a new cohort was interviewed in 2014. To date more than 400 journal articles, chapters, books, and dissertations that used the data have been collected in the PSID bibliography. This paper brings together founders and early adopters to summarize important contributions to the child development, time use, media, and health literatures. The purpose of this paper is not a detailed literature review but an overview of the literature and knowledge base to which PSID-CDS researchers have contributed. It points out unique methodological and measurement contributions, summarizes the motivation for research on parental investments in children, reviews findings regarding healthy child development, and examines the role of neighborhoods in children's lives.

Young Mothers' and Fathers' Perceptions of Relationship Violence: A Focus Group Study

Teens and young adults who are pregnant or parenting are important targets for efforts to prevent intimate partner violence (IPV). To intervene appropriately and effectively, we need to fully understand the unique issues and contexts for IPV in this population. This focus group study examined young parents' ( N = 28) perceptions of their relationships, stressors and sources of conflict, forms of IPV, and help-seeking behaviors. We examined data using template, content, thematic, and framework analyses. Findings about relationships and violence between young parents provide valuable insights for future intervention programs designed to prevent or address IPV among teen parents.

Fathers' Investments of Money and Time Across Residential Contexts

Fathers' roles in family life have changed dramatically over the past 50 years. In addition to ongoing breadwinning responsibilities, many fathers are now involved in direct caregiving and engagement with children. Yet there is considerable variation in what fathers do, especially depending on whether they live with or away from their child. In this article, the authors use data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (N = 3,869) to describe how fathers' economic capacities (money) and direct involvement with children (time) are associated over child ages 1 to 9 for resident versus nonresident fathers, net of confounding factors. They found suggestive evidence that money and time investments operate differently across residential contexts: Resident fathers experience a trade-off between market work and time involved with children. In contrast, nonresident fathers' higher economic capacities are associated with more time involvement, underscoring the greater challenge for such fathers to remain actively involved.

The protective effects of father involvement for infants of teen mothers with depressive symptoms

The purpose of this study is to examine the role of father involvement on infant distress among children born to teen mothers, particularly those who are depressed. 119 teen mothers (<20 years) and their infants (<6 months) enrolled in a quasi-experimental trial of a comprehensive pediatric primary care program. Data were drawn from mother-reported questionnaires administered at baseline, before participation in the intervention or comparison conditions. 29 % of teen mothers screened positive for depression. Mothers reported that 78 % of fathers were engaged with their children, typically seeing them a few times per month, and 71 % took financial responsibility for their children. In a multiple linear regression, father responsibility predicted lower infant distress, maternal depression predicted higher infant distress, and there was a significant interaction in which father engagement buffered the effect of maternal depression on infant distress. Fathers may be a protective resource for children born to teen mothers, even as early as the first 6 months of life, potentially mitigating the heightened risk associated with maternal depression in the postpartum period.

Income, Relationship Quality, and Parenting: Associations with Child Development in Two-Parent Families

Prior research suggests considerable heterogeneity in the advantages of living in a two-parent family. Specifically, children living with married biological parents exhibit more favorable outcomes than children living with cohabiting biological parents and with married and cohabiting stepparents. To explain these differences, researchers have focused almost exclusively on differences in the levels of factors such as income, parental relationship quality, and parenting quality across family types. In this paper, we examined whether differences in the benefits associated with these factors might also account for some of the variation in children's cognition and social-emotional development. Focusing on children at the time they enter kindergarten, we found only weak evidence of differences in benefits across family types. Rather, we found that children living in stepfather families experienced above average levels of parental relationship quality and parenting quality which, in turn, played a protective role vis-à-vis their cognitive and social-emotional development.

Paternité en contexte de violence conjugale : regards rétrospectif et prospectif

Cet article retrace l’évolution des champs d’études « paternité » et « violence conjugale » afin de mieux saisir comment ils en sont venus à se croiser au tournant des années 2000. D’une part, le développement de la recherche sur la paternité de même que des politiques et programmes sociaux faisant la promotion de la paternité ont contribué à créer un climat social valorisant l’engagement paternel. D’autre part, certains thèmes de recherche en violence conjugale (par exemple, les conséquences de la violence sur les enfants) et certains axes d’intervention (par exemple, la protection de la jeunesse) ont soulevé des préoccupations à l’égard de l’engagement des pères ayant des comportements violents. Ces éléments ont progressivement contribué à la reconnaissance sociale de la problématique de la paternité en contexte de violence conjugale et, par la suite, aux initiatives pratiques et scientifiques en la matière. Notre analyse met en lumière la nécessité d’atteindre un équilibre entre soutien et contrôle dans les pratiques et politiques en matière de paternité en contexte de violence conjugale. Elle suggère également quelques réflexions quant à l’évaluation de programmes et aux pistes de recherche à explorer.

Differential social evaluation of pregnant teens, teen mothers and teen fathers by university students

Youth may be particularly attuned to social evaluation during the teen years with implications for physical and mental health. Negative attitudes and stereotypes constitute an important type of social evaluative threat. Pregnant and parenting teens not only encounter challenges associated with their early transition to parenthood, but also are confronted with unfavourable attitudes of others. A university sample of 255 men and women responded to surveys targeting their feelings and beliefs about pregnant teens, teen mothers and teen fathers. Teen mothers were generally perceived more positively than pregnant teens who were perceived more positively compared to teen fathers. Social evaluations were generally unrelated to respondents' sex or race, but respondents who had contact with a friend or family member who had experienced a teen pregnancy were selectively more positive, as were freshmen compared to seniors. Risks attributed to early childbearing may be exacerbated by negative social evaluations.

Testing the economic independence hypothesis: the effect of an exogenous increase in child support on subsequent marriage and cohabitation

We examine the effects of an increase in income on the cohabitation and marriage of single mothers. Using data from an experiment that resulted in randomly assigned differences in child support receipt for welfare-receiving single mothers, we find that exogenous income increases (as a result of receiving all child support that was paid) are associated with significantly lower cohabitation rates between mothers and men who are not the fathers of their child(ren). Overall, these results support the hypothesis that additional income increases disadvantaged women's economic independence by reducing the need to be in the least stable type of partnerships. Our results also show the potential importance of distinguishing between biological and social fathers.

Young Adults' Roles as Partners and Parents in a Context of Family Complexity

This article uses data from the 1979 and 1997 cohorts of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth to estimate the proportions of young men and women who will take on a variety of partner and parent roles by age 30, as well as to describe how these estimates have changed across cohorts. It then draws from identity theory and related theoretical work to consider how the multiple family roles which young adults are likely to occupy-both over their life course and at a single point in time-may influence inter- and intra-family (unit) relationships in light of current trends in family complexity. This discussion highlights four key implications of identity theory as it relates to family complexity, and proposes several hypotheses for future empirical research to explore, such as the greater likelihood of role conflict in families with greater complexity and limited resources. Implications for public policy are also discussed.

Correlates of male cohabiting partner's involvement in child-rearing tasks in low-income urban Black stepfamilies

Cohabitation is a family structure experienced by many Black children. This study examines the link between family relationships (child relationship with mother and the cohabiting partner; parent and cohabiting partner relationship) and involvement of biologically unrelated male cohabiting partners (MCP) in child rearing. The participants were 121 low-income urban Black families consisting of a single mother, MCP, and an adolescent (56% female, M age = 13.7). Assessments were conducted individually with mothers, MCPs, and adolescents via measures administered by interview. MCPs were involved in both domains of child rearing assessed (daily child-related tasks and setting limits) and those identified as coparents by the mother were more involved in child-rearing tasks than those not identified as coparents. Using structural equation modeling (SEM), the mother-MCP relationship (both support and conflict) and the adolescent-MCP relationship were related to MCP's involvement in both domains of child rearing. The findings indicate that MCPs are actively involved in child rearing and family relationship variables are associated with their involvement in these tasks.

A community perspective on the role of fathers during pregnancy: a qualitative study

BACKGROUND

Defining male involvement during pregnancy is essential for the development of future research and appropriate interventions to optimize services aiming to improve birth outcomes.

STUDY AIM

To define male involvement during pregnancy and obtain community-based recommendations for interventions to improve male involvement during pregnancy.

METHODS

We conducted focus groups with mothers and fathers from the National Healthy Start Association program in order to obtain detailed descriptions of male involvement activities, benefits, barriers, and proposed solutions for increasing male involvement during pregnancy. The majority of participants were African American parents.

RESULTS

The involved "male" was identified as either the biological father, or, the current male partner of the pregnant woman. Both men and women described the ideal, involved father or male partner as present, accessible, available, understanding, willing to learn about the pregnancy process and eager to provide emotional, physical and financial support to the woman carrying the child. Women emphasized a sense of "togetherness" during the pregnancy. Suggestions included creating male-targeted prenatal programs, enhancing current interventions targeting females, and increasing healthcare providers' awareness of the importance of men's involvement during pregnancy.

CONCLUSIONS

Individual, family, community, societal and policy factors play a role in barring or diminishing the involvement of fathers during pregnancy. Future research and interventions should target these factors and their interaction in order to increase fathers' involvement and thereby improve pregnancy outcomes.

Child Support and Young Children's Development

This study examines the effects of nonresident fathers' provision of formal and informal cash child support on children's cognitive skills and behavior at 5 years of age. Taking advantage of the panel structure of the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, we control for child outcomes at age 3 and a rich set of child and family sociodemographic and psychosocial characteristics. We find that fathers' provision of informal cash support (but not formal support), particularly at or above the median, is associated with higher cognitive scores. We also find that provision of formal child support is associated with worse withdrawn and aggressive behaviors. We discuss potential explanations and implications of these results for policy and future research.