Intracranial hemorrhage in infancy and childhood. Classification and outline of management

Intracerebral haemorrhage after the neonatal period

Intracerebral haemorrhage is rare in childhood. We have reviewed the last 10 years' experience, in our referral area, of parenchymatous intracerebral haemorrhage in children from 1 month to 16 years of age. There were 27 cases, five of which were intracerebellar and two predominantly intraventricular. The commonest aetiology was vascular malformation (10), followed by haemorrhage into tumour (four), and coagulopathies (five). Clinical features were non-specific, but altered consciousness, headache, vomiting, and focal signs were the most common. Focal signs were, however, rare in the patients with intracerebellar haemorrhage. There was an overall mortality of 54% (14 out of 27). Nine patients were handicapped on follow up, but none severely so. For the diagnosis of intracerebral haemorrhage a high level of clinical suspicion is needed with early use of computed tomography. Maintenance of homeostasis, relief of raised intracranial pressure, and evacuation of haematoma are the aims of management.

Arteriovenous malformations of the brain: a teratologic challenge

Congenital arteriovenous malformations of the brain are lesions which are well-known to neurologists and neurosurgeons but are puzzling to teratologists because they occur sporadically and are unassociated with congenital malformations outside the central nervous system. They are recommended to teratologists as a field of etiologic and pathogenetic research.

Dissecting aneurysm of cerebral arteries in childhood and adolescence. Case report and literature review of 20 cases

A nine year old girl died with a massive infarct of the right cerebral hemisphere causing transtentorial and foramen magnum herniation. The infarction was secondary to an idiopathic dissecting aneurysm. The case is unusual in that the supraclinoid segment of the right internal carotid artery, the anterior cerebral artery, and the middle cerebral artery and its three branches were embedded and sectioned longitudinally. The dissection commenced in the supraclinoid segment of the right internal carotid artery, extended into the middle and anterior cerebral arteries, and was accompanied by thrombosis of the false lumen. A literature review of 20 pediatric cases indicates the malignant natural course of the disease (76% mortality in the first two months), and emphasizes the characteristic angiographic "string sign". The diagnosis of cerebral arterial dissection during life depends on angiography and a high index of suspicion.

Congenital intracranial vascular malformations in children

The clinical, laboratory, and other features of 16 children with congenital intracranial vascular malformations seen over a period of 15 years are presented. 13 patients had an arteriovenous (AV) malformation, 2 patients an aneurysm of the vein of Galen, and 1 a congenital internal carotid/internal jugular fistula. Based on onset of symptoms the patients ranged in age from 3 months to 16 years with an average age of 7½ years; however, 5 patients had their first clinical manifestation before 6 years of age. Unfortunately, definitive diagnosis could not be made until an average of 15½ years. The most important clinical manifestations were focal or generalized seizures and spontaneous intracranial bleeding, each occurring in 6 patients. Of 2 patients who presented with hydrocephalus, 1 had had an unexplained episode of cardiac failure during infancy. Inequality in the size of the legs, and periodic headaches were the initial manifestations in 2 other patients. Analysis of this series of patients with intracranial AV malformations suggests the following diagnostic recommendations: careful auscultation of the skull for bruits should be performed in all infants and children with cardiac failure of unknown aetiology; patients with focal seizures refractory to anticonvulsant therapy should be re-examined at frequent intervals to detect focal neurological deficit which otherwise may go unnoticed; and, finally, patients with a seizure disorder who develop focal signs of neurological deficit deserve a complete diagnostic investigation, including contrast studies.