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Nguyen MH, Gordon K, Reachi B, Bair J, Chauv S, Fontaine GV. Cost-avoidance associated with implementation of an overnight emergency medicine pharmacist at a Level I Trauma, Comprehensive Stroke Center. Am J Emerg Med 2024; 82:63-67. [PMID: 38805940 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajem.2024.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2023] [Revised: 03/28/2024] [Accepted: 05/08/2024] [Indexed: 05/30/2024] Open
Abstract
AIM To investigate the cost-avoidance associated with implementation of an overnight emergency medicine pharmacist (EMP) through documented clinical interventions. DESIGN Retrospective evaluation of prospectively tracked interventions in a single Level I Trauma, Comprehensive Stroke Center, from November 25, 2020 through March 12, 2021 during expanded emergency medicine service hours (2300-0700). INTERVENTIONS One of 45 clinical patient-care recommendations associated with cost-avoidance were available to be selected and documented by the EMP; more than one intervention was allowed per patient, though one clinical intervention could not be counted as multiple items. Documented services were associated with monetary cost avoidance based upon available literature assessing pharmacy clinical interventions. Differences in time from imaging to systemic thrombolytics and percentage of patients meeting door-to-alteplase benchmarks were compared with and without the availability of EMPs. RESULTS Overnight EMPs documented 820 interventions during 107 overnight shifts with a cost avoidance of $612,974. The most common interventions were bedside monitoring (n = 127; $50,694), drug information consultation (97; $11,269), and antimicrobial therapy initiation and streamlining (95; $60,101). When categorizing interventions, 378 (46%; $292,484) were input as hands-on care, 216 (26%; $94,899) as individualization of patient care, 135 (17%; $25,897) as administrative and supportive tasks, 84 (10%; $121,746) as adverse drug event prevention, and 7 (1%; $77,964) as resource utilization. All patients (n = 6) with an acute ischemic stroke during the evaluation period received systemic thrombolytics ≤45 min in the presence of EMPs compared with 50% receiving thrombolytics ≤45 min without EMPs. CONCLUSIONS Expanded overnight coverage by EMPs provided clinical bedside pharmacotherapy expertise to critically ill patients otherwise not available prior to study implementation. Clinical interventions were associated with substantial cost-avoidance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark H Nguyen
- Department of Pharmacy, Intermountain Medical Center, Intermountain Health, Salt Lake City, UT, United States of America.
| | - Kyle Gordon
- Department of Pharmacy, Intermountain Medical Center, Intermountain Health, Salt Lake City, UT, United States of America
| | - Breyanna Reachi
- Department of Pharmacy, Intermountain Medical Center, Intermountain Health, Salt Lake City, UT, United States of America
| | - Jeremy Bair
- Department of Pharmacy, Intermountain Medical Center, Intermountain Health, Salt Lake City, UT, United States of America
| | - Stephanie Chauv
- Department of Pharmacy, Intermountain Medical Center, Intermountain Health, Salt Lake City, UT, United States of America
| | - Gabriel V Fontaine
- Department of Pharmacy, Intermountain Medical Center, Intermountain Health, Salt Lake City, UT, United States of America
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Shigle AJ, Piechowski K, Sandoval N, Chiplinski A, Hays WB. Pharmacy residency training program increases residents' confidence in inpatient medical emergency response. Am J Health Syst Pharm 2024; 81:e372-e378. [PMID: 38305384 DOI: 10.1093/ajhp/zxae021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2024] [Indexed: 02/03/2024] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE The benefits of pharmacists' involvement in medical emergencies are well established, but optimal methods of training pharmacists for emergency response are unknown. The primary objective of this report is to describe the design and evaluation of a pharmacy resident medical emergency response training (PR-MERT) program for preparing trainees to respond to hospital medical emergencies, including cardiac arrest and rapid sequence intubation (RSI). SUMMARY The PR-MERT program was a year-long longitudinal experience designed to prepare postgraduate year 1 pharmacy residents for medical emergency response. During the first month, the residents completed an orientation session that encompassed several lectures, certification by the American Heart Association in basic life support and advanced cardiovascular life support, standardized simulation scenarios, and mock medical emergencies. The trainees continued to utilize these skills and clinical knowledge through a longitudinal didactic lecture series, resident case conferences, and practice-based application by responding to real-life medical emergencies. Residents were assessed and coached throughout the program by clinical pharmacy preceptors and a "code coach" with extensive medical emergency response experience. After the year-long training, residents completed an anonymous survey assessing self-confidence and the structure of the program. The results showed improved confidence in medication selection and dosing, as well as anticipating the needs of the team and speaking up in cardiac arrest and RSI situations. Residents were satisfied with the training offered and structure of the program. CONCLUSION The development of a PR-MERT program at an academic medical center was successful in achieving longitudinal learning objectives and improving residents' confidence in responding to medical emergencies. The implementation of a similar medical emergency training curriculum in inpatient pharmacy residency programs may be beneficial.
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Currey EM, Falconer N, Isoardi KZ, Barras M. Impact of pharmacists during in-hospital resuscitation or medical emergency response events: A systematic review. Am J Emerg Med 2024; 75:98-110. [PMID: 37939522 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajem.2023.10.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2023] [Revised: 09/11/2023] [Accepted: 10/05/2023] [Indexed: 11/10/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND We sought to determine the impact of the presence of a pharmacist on medication and patient related outcomes during the emergency management of critically ill patients requiring resuscitation or medical emergency response team care in a hospital setting. METHODS We conducted a systematic review following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. A literature search of databases from January 1995 to April 2023 was conducted to identify studies of contemporary pharmacist practice. Results were extracted and analysed for included studies, those evaluating the impact of the presence of a pharmacist on medication and patient related outcomes during the emergency management of critically ill hospitalised patients requiring resuscitation or medical emergency response team care. To determine risk of bias, the Newcastle-Ottowa Quality Assessment scale was used for non-randomised studies and the Revised Cochrane risk-of-bias tool for randomised trials. RESULTS Of 1345 studies identified, 54 were selected for full text review, and 30 were included in the final analysis. There were 29 cohort studies and one randomised controlled trial. The studies reported the impact of a pharmacist for a variety of patient presentations. The study team assigned each study to one of eight patient cohorts: acute stroke, cardiac arrest, rapid response calls, S-T segment elevation myocardial infarction, acute haemorrhage, major trauma resuscitation, sepsis and status epilepticus. The most frequently reported outcome, associated with a statistically significant benefit in 23 studies, was time to medication administration. Few studies reported a significant difference in patient outcome measures such as mortality. Only 8 of the 30 studies were assessed to have a low risk of bias. CONCLUSIONS The results of this systematic review provide support for a beneficial impact of a pharmacist presence and intervention during resuscitation or medical emergency response team care, with significant improvements in outcomes such as time to initiation of time-critical medications, medication appropriateness and guideline compliance. However, studies were predominantly small and retrospective and were not powered to detect differences in patient related measures such as length of stay and mortality. Future research should investigate the clinical impacts of the pharmacist in ED resuscitation settings in controlled, prospective studies with robust sampling methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth M Currey
- Pharmacy Department, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; School of Pharmacy, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.
| | - Nazanin Falconer
- Pharmacy Department, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; School of Pharmacy, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.
| | - Katherine Z Isoardi
- Emergency Department and Clinical Toxicology Unit, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; School of Medicine, University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW, Australia.
| | - Michael Barras
- Pharmacy Department, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; School of Pharmacy, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; School of Medicine, University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW, Australia.
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Doiron J. Pharmacy Practice in Quebec Emergency Departments: A Survey Study. Can J Hosp Pharm 2023; 76:7-13. [PMID: 36683655 PMCID: PMC9817218 DOI: 10.4212/cjhp.3262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Background According to a Canadian survey conducted in 2013, 37 of the 67 Quebec emergency departments (EDs) in hospitals with more than 50 beds reported having a pharmacist within the department. However, based on the 17 responses to the survey, it was not possible to determine patient care services offered by Quebec ED pharmacists, because the data were aggregated across all Canadian respondents. A provincial survey was undertaken to further define ED pharmacy practice within Quebec. Objectives To measure pharmacist involvement in EDs in the province of Quebec and to describe patient care services and interventions offered by these pharmacists. Methods A 47-question survey was sent to 33 directors of pharmacy departments, representing 90 hospitals and institutes with EDs in the province of Quebec. The directors of pharmacy were asked to forward the survey to an ED pharmacist for completion or to partially answer the survey themselves if their facilities had no pharmacists practising in the ED. The survey evaluated the presence of pharmacists in the ED, their training, the interventions they performed, and their involvement within the department. The presence and role of ED pharmacy technical staff were also evaluated. Results Of the 43 completed surveys received, 30 reported at least 1 pharmacist providing patient care within the facility's ED. The most common tasks performed by ED pharmacists were, in decreasing order of frequency, answering questions from the multidisciplinary team, adjusting medications according to patients' allergies or their renal or hepatic function, managing drug interactions, and clarifying prescriptions. Pharmacists also reported teaching pharmacy students and residents and supporting the team in the resuscitation area. Conclusions The majority of respondents reported having at least 1 pharmacist in the ED. Compared with previous Canadian results, this survey had more respondents from Quebec with better representation of ED pharmacy practice in the province. Patient care services provided by pharmacists were variable, possibly because of a lack of standardized practice guidelines.
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Rech MA, Gurnani PK, Peppard WJ, Smetana KS, Van Berkel MA, Hammond DA, Flannery AH. PHarmacist Avoidance or Reductions in Medical Costs in CRITically Ill Adults: PHARM-CRIT Study. Crit Care Explor 2021; 3:e0594. [PMID: 34913039 PMCID: PMC8668016 DOI: 10.1097/cce.0000000000000594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
To comprehensively classify interventions performed by ICU clinical pharmacists and quantify cost avoidance generated through their accepted interventions. DESIGN A multicenter, prospective, observational study was performed between August 2018 and January 2019. SETTING Community hospitals and academic medical centers in the United States. PARTICIPANTS ICU clinical pharmacists. INTERVENTIONS Recommendations classified into one of 38 intervention categories (divided into six unique sections) associated with cost avoidance. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS Two-hundred fifteen ICU pharmacists at 85 centers performed 55,926 interventions during 3,148 shifts that were accepted on 27,681 adult patient days and generated $23,404,089 of cost avoidance. The quantity of accepted interventions and cost avoidance generated in six established sections was adverse drug event prevention (5,777 interventions; $5,822,539 CA), resource utilization (12,630 interventions; $4,491,318), individualization of patient care (29,284 interventions; $9,680,036 cost avoidance), prophylaxis (1,639 interventions; $1,414,465 cost avoidance), hands-on care (1,828 interventions; $1,339,621 cost avoidance), and administrative/supportive tasks (4,768 interventions; $656,110 cost avoidance). Mean cost avoidance was $418 per intervention, $845 per patient day, and $7,435 per ICU pharmacist shift. The annualized cost avoidance from an ICU pharmacist is $1,784,302. The potential monetary cost avoidance to pharmacist salary ratio was between $3.3:1 and $9.6:1. CONCLUSIONS Pharmacist involvement in the care of critically ill patients results in significant avoidance of healthcare costs, particularly in the areas of individualization of patient care, adverse drug event prevention, and resource utilization. The potential monetary cost avoidance to pharmacist salary ratio employing an ICU clinical pharmacist is between $3.3:1 and $9.6:1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan A Rech
- Department of Pharmacy, Loyola University Medical Center, Maywood, IL
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Loyola University Medical Center, Maywood, IL
| | - Payal K Gurnani
- Department of Internal Medicine, Rush Medical College, Chicago, IL
| | - William J Peppard
- Department of Pharmacy, Froedtert Hospital, Milwaukee, WI
- Department of Surgery, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI
| | - Keaton S Smetana
- Department of Pharmacy, Ohio State University Medical Center, Columbus, OH
| | | | - Drayton A Hammond
- Department of Pharmacy, Loyola University Medical Center, Maywood, IL
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Loyola University Medical Center, Maywood, IL
- Department of Internal Medicine, Rush Medical College, Chicago, IL
- Department of Pharmacy, Froedtert Hospital, Milwaukee, WI
- Department of Surgery, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI
- Department of Pharmacy, Ohio State University Medical Center, Columbus, OH
- Department of Pharmacy, Erlanger Medical Center, Chattanooga, TN
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky HealthCare, Lexington, KY
- Department of Pharmacy Practice and Science, University of Kentucky College of Pharmacy, Lexington, KY
| | - Alexander H Flannery
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky HealthCare, Lexington, KY
- Department of Pharmacy Practice and Science, University of Kentucky College of Pharmacy, Lexington, KY
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Lang A, Veronin MA, Reinert JP. A Comparison of Tertiary Drug Resources' Consistency Regarding Drug-Drug Interactions of Adjunctive Analgesics. J Pharm Technol 2021; 37:12-16. [PMID: 34752561 DOI: 10.1177/8755122520951331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Health care providers routinely rely on tertiary drug information resources to affirm knowledge or proactively verify the safety and efficacy of medications. Though all patient care areas are affected, the reliability of these resources is perhaps nowhere as poignant as it is in high-acuity settings, including the emergency department and the intensive care unit. As providers seek to identify adjunctive analgesics for acute pain in these areas, they must be able to rely on the integrity to whichever resource their institution has granted access. Objective: To determine the congruency of drug-drug interaction information found on 3 tertiary drug resources. Methods: A drug-drug interaction analysis was conducted on Micromedex, Lexicomp, and Medscape. Adjunctive analgesics included dexmedetomidine and ketamine, which were compared with the intravenous opioid products morphine, fentanyl, and hydromorphone. Results: Significant discrepancies were appreciated with regard to the severity of drug-drug interactions. In addition, the heterogeneity in which reaction severity and likelihood are described by each respective resource makes direct comparisons difficult. Interaction warnings for dexmedetomidine and fentanyl included a "major interaction" from Micromedex, whereas Lexicomp did not identify a risk and Medscape only recommended increased monitoring on the grounds of respiratory and central nervous system depression. Conclusions: Health care providers must remain vigilant when reviewing tertiary drug information resources. Pharmacists possess the training and skills necessary to assist interdisciplinary medical teams in providing optimal patient care through evaluating and applying the information gleaned from these resources.
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Narayan SW, Abraham I, Erstad BL, Haas CE, Sanders A, Patanwala AE. Methods used to attribute costs avoided from pharmacist interventions in acute care: A scoping review. Am J Health Syst Pharm 2021; 78:1576-1590. [PMID: 34003209 DOI: 10.1093/ajhp/zxab214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Cost-avoidance studies are common in pharmacy practice literature. This scoping review summarizes, critiques, and identifies current limitations of the methods that have been used to determine cost avoidance associated with pharmacists' interventions in acute care settings. METHODS An Embase and MEDLINE search was conducted to identify studies that estimated cost avoidance from pharmacist interventions in acute care settings. We included studies with human participants and articles published in English from July 2010 to January 2021, with the intent of summarizing the evidence most relevant to contemporary practice. RESULTS The database search retrieved 129 articles, of which 39 were included. Among these publications, less than half (18 of 39) mentioned whether the researchers assigned a probability for the occurrence of a harmful consequence in the absence of an intervention; thus, a 100% probability of a harmful consequence was assumed. Eleven of the 39 articles identified the specific harm that would occur in the absence of intervention. No clear methods of estimating cost avoidance could be identified for 7 studies. Among all 39 included articles, only 1 attributed both a probability to the potential harm and identified the cost specific to that harm. CONCLUSION Cost-avoidance studies of pharmacists' interventions in acute care settings over the last decade have common flaws and provide estimates that are likely to be inflated. There is a need for guidance on consistent methodology for such investigations for reporting of results and to confirm the validity of their economic implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sujita W Narayan
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Australia
| | - Ivo Abraham
- College of Pharmacy, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Brian L Erstad
- College of Pharmacy, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Curtis E Haas
- University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Arthur Sanders
- College of Medicine, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Asad E Patanwala
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Australia, and Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Sydney, Australia
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Miarons M, Marín S, Amenós I, Campins L, Rovira M, Daza M. Pharmaceutical interventions in the emergency department: cost-effectiveness and cost-benefit analysis. Eur J Hosp Pharm 2021; 28:133-138. [DOI: 10.1136/ejhpharm-2019-002067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2019] [Revised: 01/13/2020] [Accepted: 02/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
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Rech MA, Adams W, Smetana KS, Gurnani PK, Van Berkel Patel MA, Peppard WJ, Hammond DA, Flannery AH. PHarmacist Avoidance or Reductions in Medical Costs in Patients Presenting the EMergency Department: PHARM-EM Study. Crit Care Explor 2021; 3:e0406. [PMID: 33912836 PMCID: PMC8078282 DOI: 10.1097/cce.0000000000000406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
To comprehensively classify interventions performed by emergency medicine clinical pharmacists and quantify cost avoidance generated through their accepted interventions. DESIGN A multicenter, prospective, observational study was performed between August 2018 and January 2019. SETTING Community and academic hospitals in the United States. PARTICIPANTS Emergency medicine clinical pharmacists. INTERVENTIONS Recommendations classified into one of 38 intervention categories associated with cost avoidance. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS Eighty-eight emergency medicine pharmacists at 49 centers performed 13,984 interventions during 917 shifts that were accepted on 8,602 patients and generated $7,531,862 of cost avoidance. The quantity of accepted interventions and cost avoidance generated in six established categories were as follows: adverse drug event prevention (1,631 interventions; $2,225,049 cost avoidance), resource utilization (628; $310,582), individualization of patient care (6,122; $1,787,170), prophylaxis (24; $22,804), hands-on care (3,533; $2,836,811), and administrative/supportive tasks (2,046; $342,881). Mean cost avoidance was $538.61 per intervention, $875.60 per patient, and $8,213.59 per emergency medicine pharmacist shift. The annualized cost avoidance from an emergency medicine pharmacist was $1,971,262. The monetary cost avoidance to pharmacist salary ratio was between $1.4:1 and $10.6:1. CONCLUSIONS Pharmacist involvement in the care of patients presenting to the emergency department results in significant avoidance of healthcare costs, particularly in the areas of hands-on care and adverse drug event prevention. The potential monetary benefit-to-cost ratio for emergency medicine pharmacists is between $1.4:1 and $10.6:1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan A Rech
- Department of Pharmacy, Loyola University Medical Center, Maywood, IL
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Loyola University Medical Center, Maywood, IL
| | - William Adams
- Department of Biostatistics, Loyola University, Maywood, IL
| | - Keaton S Smetana
- Department of Pharmacy, Ohio State University Medical Center, Columbus, OH
| | - Payal K Gurnani
- Department of Pharmacy, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL
- Department of Internal Medicine, Rush Medical College, Chicago, IL
| | | | - William J Peppard
- Department of Pharmacy, Froedtert Hospital, Milwaukee, WI
- Department of Surgery, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI
| | - Drayton A Hammond
- Department of Pharmacy, Loyola University Medical Center, Maywood, IL
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Loyola University Medical Center, Maywood, IL
- Department of Biostatistics, Loyola University, Maywood, IL
- Department of Pharmacy, Ohio State University Medical Center, Columbus, OH
- Department of Pharmacy, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL
- Department of Internal Medicine, Rush Medical College, Chicago, IL
- Department of Pharmacy, Erlanger Medical Center, Chattanooga, TN
- Department of Pharmacy, Froedtert Hospital, Milwaukee, WI
- Department of Surgery, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky HealthCare, Lexington, KY
- Department of Pharmacy Practice and Science, University of Kentucky College of Pharmacy, Lexington, KY
| | - Alexander H Flannery
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky HealthCare, Lexington, KY
- Department of Pharmacy Practice and Science, University of Kentucky College of Pharmacy, Lexington, KY
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Baudouin A, Herledan C, Poletto N, Guillemin MD, Maison O, Garreau R, Chillotti L, Parat S, Ranchon F, Rioufol C. Economic impact of clinical pharmaceutical activities in hospital wards: A systematic review. Res Social Adm Pharm 2020; 17:497-505. [PMID: 32819880 DOI: 10.1016/j.sapharm.2020.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2019] [Revised: 07/13/2020] [Accepted: 07/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The positive impact of clinical pharmacy services (CPS) in improving clinical outcomes such as reduction of drug related problems is well demonstrated. Despite these results, the deployment of these activities is not systematically observed in the hospital setting. OBJECTIVES This systematic review first aimed to describe existing evidence regarding economic evaluation of ward-based CPS focusing on the entire treatment of a patient in a hospital setting. Secondly, the quality of economic evaluations of existing evidence was assessed. METHODS A comprehensive literature search was performed in PubMed/Medline, Science Direct and the NHS Economic Evaluation databases from January 2000 to March 2019. English or French language articles describing an economic evaluation of ward-based CPS on inpatients in hospital settings were included. Articles not describing a single study, dealing with a CPS not considering the entire medication regimen of the patient or presenting both inpatient and outpatient CPS were excluded. Selected articles were analyzed according to Drummond's check-list for assessing economic evaluations. RESULTS Forty-one studies were included. About one third were American publications. CPS implemented in ICU represented about half of the selected articles. Pharmacist-to-bed ratios varied according to countries and care unit type with the most favorable ratios in ICU and in American studies. Cost-avoidance was mostly used to express economic impact and ranged from €1579 to €3,089 328. Studies yielding the greater economic impact were conducted in the USA with implementation of full-time equivalents pharmacists or establishing of collaborative practice agreements. Only 6 articles dealt correctly with at least 7 of the 10 Drummond's checklist assessment criteria. CONCLUSION This review suggests that the existing evidence is not sufficient to conclude to a positive economic impact of CPS conducted according to clinical pharmacy guidelines. Funding resources, remuneration of clinical pharmacy activities and provision of standardized national clinical and economic databases appear to be essential evolutions to improve CPS development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amandine Baudouin
- Hospices Civils de Lyon, Groupement Hospitalier Sud, Pharmacie à Usage Intérieur, 165 Chemin Du Grand Revoyet, Pierre-Bénite Cedex, 69495, France
| | - Chloé Herledan
- Hospices Civils de Lyon, Groupement Hospitalier Sud, Pharmacie à Usage Intérieur, 165 Chemin Du Grand Revoyet, Pierre-Bénite Cedex, 69495, France
| | - Nicolas Poletto
- Hospices Civils de Lyon, Groupement Hospitalier Sud, Pharmacie à Usage Intérieur, 165 Chemin Du Grand Revoyet, Pierre-Bénite Cedex, 69495, France
| | - Marie-Delphine Guillemin
- Hospices Civils de Lyon, Groupement Hospitalier Sud, Pharmacie à Usage Intérieur, 165 Chemin Du Grand Revoyet, Pierre-Bénite Cedex, 69495, France
| | - Ophélie Maison
- Hospices Civils de Lyon, Groupement Hospitalier Sud, Pharmacie à Usage Intérieur, 165 Chemin Du Grand Revoyet, Pierre-Bénite Cedex, 69495, France
| | - Romain Garreau
- Hospices Civils de Lyon, Groupement Hospitalier Sud, Pharmacie à Usage Intérieur, 165 Chemin Du Grand Revoyet, Pierre-Bénite Cedex, 69495, France
| | - Louis Chillotti
- Hospices Civils de Lyon, Groupement Hospitalier Sud, Pharmacie à Usage Intérieur, 165 Chemin Du Grand Revoyet, Pierre-Bénite Cedex, 69495, France
| | - Stéphanie Parat
- Hospices Civils de Lyon, Groupement Hospitalier Sud, Pharmacie à Usage Intérieur, 165 Chemin Du Grand Revoyet, Pierre-Bénite Cedex, 69495, France
| | - Florence Ranchon
- Hospices Civils de Lyon, Groupement Hospitalier Sud, Pharmacie à Usage Intérieur, 165 Chemin Du Grand Revoyet, Pierre-Bénite Cedex, 69495, France; EMR3738, Université de Lyon, Lyon, France.
| | - Catherine Rioufol
- Hospices Civils de Lyon, Groupement Hospitalier Sud, Pharmacie à Usage Intérieur, 165 Chemin Du Grand Revoyet, Pierre-Bénite Cedex, 69495, France; EMR3738, Université de Lyon, Lyon, France
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Hammond DA, Rech MA. Cautions heeded: A call to action for evaluating pharmacists' direct and indirect patient care activities. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN COLLEGE OF CLINICAL PHARMACY 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/jac5.1211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Drayton A. Hammond
- Department of Pharmacy; Rush University Medical Center; Chicago Illinois
- Department of Internal Medicine; Rush Medical College; Chicago Illinois
| | - Megan A. Rech
- Department of Pharmacy; Loyola University Medical Center; Maywood Illinois
- Department of Emergency Medicine; Loyola University Medical Center; Maywood Illinois
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Talon B, Perez A, Yan C, Alobaidi A, Zhang KH, Schultz BG, Suda KJ, Touchette DR. Economic evaluations of clinical pharmacy services in the United States: 2011-2017. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN COLLEGE OF CLINICAL PHARMACY 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/jac5.1199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Brian Talon
- Department of Pharmacy Systems, Outcomes & Policy; University of Illinois at Chicago; Chicago Illinois
| | - Alexandra Perez
- Department of Sociobehavioral and Administrative Pharmacy; Nova Southeastern University; Fort Lauderdale Florida
| | - Connie Yan
- Department of Pharmacy Systems, Outcomes & Policy; University of Illinois at Chicago; Chicago Illinois
| | - Ali Alobaidi
- Department of Pharmacy Systems, Outcomes & Policy; University of Illinois at Chicago; Chicago Illinois
| | - Katherine H. Zhang
- Department of Pharmacy Systems, Outcomes & Policy; University of Illinois at Chicago; Chicago Illinois
| | - Bob G. Schultz
- Department of Pharmacy Systems, Outcomes & Policy; University of Illinois at Chicago; Chicago Illinois
| | - Katie J. Suda
- Department of Medicine, Center for Health Equity Research and Promotion, VA Pittsburgh Health Care System; University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine; Pittsburgh PA
| | - Daniel R. Touchette
- Department of Pharmacy Systems, Outcomes & Policy; University of Illinois at Chicago; Chicago Illinois
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Treu CN, Llamzon JL, Acquisto NM, Lazar JD. The impact of an emergency medicine clinical pharmacist on nursing satisfaction. Int J Clin Pharm 2019; 41:1618-1624. [DOI: 10.1007/s11096-019-00927-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2019] [Accepted: 10/16/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Phillips BB, Newsome AS, Bland CM, Palmer R, Smith K, DeRemer DL, Phan SV. Pharmacy Student Performance in a Capstone Course Utilizing the Pharmacists' Patient Care Process. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL EDUCATION 2019; 83:7357. [PMID: 31831908 PMCID: PMC6900808 DOI: 10.5688/ajpe7357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2018] [Accepted: 01/30/2019] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Objective. To develop, implement, and assess student performance and confidence in a pharmacy capstone course that used case-based instruction and the Pharmacist's Patient Care Process (PPCP) to develop patient work-up skills in third-year Doctor of Pharmacy (PharmD) students. Methods. A skills-based capstone course was developed by a team of faculty members and instructional designers that focused on patient evaluation skills and applying the steps of the PPCP to complex patient cases housed in a simulated electronic health record (SEHR). The acuity of the cases increased over the course of the semester. For each patient case, students were expected to identify drug-related problems and develop an assessment and plan based on the information provided in the SEHR. Results. Students (n=134) were assessed through weekly quizzes and two practical examinations. The average score for all quizzes was 81%. A significant correlation was found between average quiz scores and performance on the end-of-course practical examination. Student scores significantly improved from the first to the second practical examination (10.4 vs 12.9, respectively), and student confidence with regard to all course objectives significantly improved from the beginning to the end of the semester. Conclusion. A capstone course that applied the PPCP framework successfully taught third-year PharmD students the patient care skills they would need in advanced pharmacy practice experiences.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Russ Palmer
- University of Georgia, College of Pharmacy, Athens, Georgia
| | - Katie Smith
- University of Georgia, College of Pharmacy, Athens, Georgia
| | - David L. DeRemer
- University of Florida, College of Pharmacy, Gainesville, Florida
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Hammond DA, Gurnani PK, Flannery AH, Smetana KS, Westrick JC, Lat I, Rech MA. Scoping Review of Interventions Associated with Cost Avoidance Able to Be Performed in the Intensive Care Unit and Emergency Department. Pharmacotherapy 2019; 39:215-231. [PMID: 30664269 DOI: 10.1002/phar.2224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
A framework for evaluating pharmacists' impact on cost avoidance in the intensive care unit (ICU) and emergency department (ED) has not been established. This scoping review was registered (CRD42018091217) and conducted to identify, aggregate, and qualitatively describe the highest quality evidence for cost avoidance generated by clinical pharmacists on interventions performed in an ICU or ED. Searches were conducted in PubMed, Scopus, CINAHL, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, and Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews from inception until April 2018. The level of evidence (LOE) for each specific category of intervention was evaluated according to the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluation evidence-to-decision framework. The risks of bias for articles were evaluated using Newcastle Ottawa and Cochrane Collaboration tools. The values from all interventions were inflated to 2018 U.S. dollars using the consumer price index for medical care. Of the 464 articles initially identified, 371 were excluded and 93 were included. After reviewing references from the articles included, an additional 71 articles were also reviewed. The 38 cost intervention categories were supported by varying LOEs: IA (0 categories), IB (1 category), IIA (4 categories), IIB (0 categories), III (27 categories), and IV (6 categories), and articles mostly displayed low to moderate risks of bias. Pharmacists generate cost avoidance through a variety of interventions in critically and emergently ill patients. The quality of evidence supporting specific cost avoidance values is generally low. Quantification of and factors associated with the cost avoidance generated from pharmacists caring for these patients are of paramount importance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Drayton A Hammond
- Medical Intensive Care Unit, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Payal K Gurnani
- Cardiovascular Intensive Care Unit, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Alexander H Flannery
- Medical Intensive Care Unit, University of Kentucky HealthCare, Lexington, Kentucky
| | - Keaton S Smetana
- Neurosciences Intensive Care Unit, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, Ohio
| | | | - Ishaq Lat
- Department of Pharmacy, Shirley Ryan AbilityLab, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Megan A Rech
- Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University Chicago, Maywood, Illinois
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Loyola University Medical Center, Maywood, Illinois
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Should Emergency Pharmacists Focus on Providing Care to Admitted Patients Rather than Non-admitted Patients? Can J Hosp Pharm 2018; 71:392-395. [PMID: 30626987 PMCID: PMC6306188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
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