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Gonçalves LFFF, Reis RL, Fernandes EM. Forefront Research of Foaming Strategies on Biodegradable Polymers and Their Composites by Thermal or Melt-Based Processing Technologies: Advances and Perspectives. Polymers (Basel) 2024; 16:1286. [PMID: 38732755 PMCID: PMC11085284 DOI: 10.3390/polym16091286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2024] [Revised: 04/13/2024] [Accepted: 04/26/2024] [Indexed: 05/13/2024] Open
Abstract
The last few decades have witnessed significant advances in the development of polymeric-based foam materials. These materials find several practical applications in our daily lives due to their characteristic properties such as low density, thermal insulation, and porosity, which are important in packaging, in building construction, and in biomedical applications, respectively. The first foams with practical applications used polymeric materials of petrochemical origin. However, due to growing environmental concerns, considerable efforts have been made to replace some of these materials with biodegradable polymers. Foam processing has evolved greatly in recent years due to improvements in existing techniques, such as the use of supercritical fluids in extrusion foaming and foam injection moulding, as well as the advent or adaptation of existing techniques to produce foams, as in the case of the combination between additive manufacturing and foam technology. The use of supercritical CO2 is especially advantageous in the production of porous structures for biomedical applications, as CO2 is chemically inert and non-toxic; in addition, it allows for an easy tailoring of the pore structure through processing conditions. Biodegradable polymeric materials, despite their enormous advantages over petroleum-based materials, present some difficulties regarding their potential use in foaming, such as poor melt strength, slow crystallization rate, poor processability, low service temperature, low toughness, and high brittleness, which limits their field of application. Several strategies were developed to improve the melt strength, including the change in monomer composition and the use of chemical modifiers and chain extenders to extend the chain length or create a branched molecular structure, to increase the molecular weight and the viscosity of the polymer. The use of additives or fillers is also commonly used, as fillers can improve crystallization kinetics by acting as crystal-nucleating agents. Alternatively, biodegradable polymers can be blended with other biodegradable polymers to combine certain properties and to counteract certain limitations. This work therefore aims to provide the latest advances regarding the foaming of biodegradable polymers. It covers the main foaming techniques and their advances and reviews the uses of biodegradable polymers in foaming, focusing on the chemical changes of polymers that improve their foaming ability. Finally, the challenges as well as the main opportunities presented reinforce the market potential of the biodegradable polymer foam materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis F. F. F. Gonçalves
- 3B’s Research Group, I3Bs–Research Institute on Biomaterials, Biodegradables and Biomimetics, University of Minho, Headquarters of the European Institute of Excellence on Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, AvePark, Parque de Ciência e Tecnologia, Zona Industrial da Gandra, Barco, 4805-017 Guimarães, Portugal;
- ICVS/3B’s—PT Government Associate Laboratory, Barco, 4805-017 Guimarães, Portugal
| | - Rui L. Reis
- 3B’s Research Group, I3Bs–Research Institute on Biomaterials, Biodegradables and Biomimetics, University of Minho, Headquarters of the European Institute of Excellence on Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, AvePark, Parque de Ciência e Tecnologia, Zona Industrial da Gandra, Barco, 4805-017 Guimarães, Portugal;
- ICVS/3B’s—PT Government Associate Laboratory, Barco, 4805-017 Guimarães, Portugal
| | - Emanuel M. Fernandes
- 3B’s Research Group, I3Bs–Research Institute on Biomaterials, Biodegradables and Biomimetics, University of Minho, Headquarters of the European Institute of Excellence on Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, AvePark, Parque de Ciência e Tecnologia, Zona Industrial da Gandra, Barco, 4805-017 Guimarães, Portugal;
- ICVS/3B’s—PT Government Associate Laboratory, Barco, 4805-017 Guimarães, Portugal
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Dong S, Wang Y, Liu L, Jia H, Zang Y, Zu L, Lan T, Wang J. Synthesis and Characterization of a Novel DOPO-Based Flame Retardant Intermediate and Its Flame Retardancy as a Polystyrene Intrinsic Flame Retardant. ACS OMEGA 2023; 8:48825-48842. [PMID: 38162735 PMCID: PMC10753556 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.3c06235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2023] [Revised: 11/22/2023] [Accepted: 11/24/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024]
Abstract
The research on intrinsic flame retardant has become a hot topic in the field of flame retardant. The synthesis of reactive flame-retardant monomer is one of the effective methods to obtain an intrinsic flame retardant. In addition, in view of the small molecular flame retardant easily migrates from the polymer during the use process, which leads to the gradual reduction of the flame retardant effect and even the gradual loss of flame retardant performance, and the advantages of atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) technology in polymer structure design and function customization, we first synthesized reactive flame retardant monomer 6-(hydroxymethyl)dibenzo[c,e][1,2]oxaphosphinine 6-oxide (FAA-DOPO), then synthesized polystyrene bromine (PS148-Br) macromolecular initiator by ATRP technology, and finally obtained block copolymer polystyrene-b-poly{6-(hydroxymethyl)dibenzo[c,e][1,2]oxaphosphinine 6-oxide} (PS-b-PFAA-DOPO) by the polymerization of FAA-DOPO initiated by macromolecular initiator PS148-Br by ATRP technology. The chemical structure of FAA-DOPO was characterized by 1D and 2D NMR (1H, 13C, DEPT 135, HSQC, COSY, NOE, and HMBC) spectra, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The chemical structure and molecular weight of PS-b-PFAA-DOPO were characterized by FTIR and gel permeation chromatography (GPC). The thermal and flame-retardant properties of PS-b-PFAA-DOPO were characterized by thermogravimetry analysis (TG), UL-94, limiting oxygen index (LOI), and microscale combustion calorimetry (MCC). It was found that FAA-DOPO could be used as a monomer for polymerization, although FAA-DOPO had a large steric hindrance from the chemical structure of FAA-DOPO, the UL-94 grade of PS-b-PFAA-DOPO reached the V-0 grade, and the LOI increased by 59.12% compared with PS148-Br.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaobo Dong
- College
of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Northeast
Petroleum University, Daqing 163318, People’s
Republic of China
- Heilongjiang
Province Key Laboratory of Polymeric Composition Material, College
of Materials Science and Engineering, Qiqihar
University, Qiqihar 161006, People’s
Republic of China
| | - Yazhen Wang
- College
of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Northeast
Petroleum University, Daqing 163318, People’s
Republic of China
- Heilongjiang
Province Key Laboratory of Polymeric Composition Material, College
of Materials Science and Engineering, Qiqihar
University, Qiqihar 161006, People’s
Republic of China
- College
of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Resource Utilization, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, People’s Republic of China
| | - Li Liu
- College
of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Qiqihar
University, Qiqihar 161006, People’s
Republic of China
| | - Hongge Jia
- Heilongjiang
Province Key Laboratory of Polymeric Composition Material, College
of Materials Science and Engineering, Qiqihar
University, Qiqihar 161006, People’s
Republic of China
| | - Yu Zang
- Heilongjiang
Province Key Laboratory of Polymeric Composition Material, College
of Materials Science and Engineering, Qiqihar
University, Qiqihar 161006, People’s
Republic of China
| | - Liwu Zu
- Heilongjiang
Province Key Laboratory of Polymeric Composition Material, College
of Materials Science and Engineering, Qiqihar
University, Qiqihar 161006, People’s
Republic of China
| | - Tianyu Lan
- College
of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Northeast
Petroleum University, Daqing 163318, People’s
Republic of China
- Heilongjiang
Province Key Laboratory of Polymeric Composition Material, College
of Materials Science and Engineering, Qiqihar
University, Qiqihar 161006, People’s
Republic of China
| | - Jun Wang
- College
of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Northeast
Petroleum University, Daqing 163318, People’s
Republic of China
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Koch I, Preiß G, Müller-Pabel M, Grüber B, Meuchelböck J, Ruckdäschel H, Gude M. Analysis of density-dependent bead and cell structure of expanded polypropylene bead foams from X-ray computed tomography of different resolution. J CELL PLAST 2023. [DOI: 10.1177/0021955x231165343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/03/2023]
Abstract
Closed-cell bead foams with their hierarchical geometrical structure are a challenge for statistical reconstruction and finite element modelling. For the purpose of providing the fundamental micro- and meso-structural descriptors - wall thickness, cell as well as bead volume and sphericity - of expanded polypropylene bead foams of different density, 3D-images from X-ray computed tomography are analyzed. A detailed description of development and application of an image analysis methodology for the determination of feature distributions from CT-scans of different level of detail is provided. The methods are based on off-the-shelf algorithms provided by the open-source package distribution FIJI. It should be highlighted, that beside essential methods such as thresholding, euclidean distance and watershed transformation here the Trainable WEKA segmentation is applied for separating material phases in the images. Although the methods elaborated are generally very case sensitive, the reader benefits from the validation strategies applied, so that development of individual methods into the direction of reliability, repeatability and automation is supported.
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Kuhnigk J, Krebs N, Mielke C, Standau T, Pospiech D, Ruckdäschel H. Influence of Molecular Weight on the Bead Foaming and Bead Fusion Behavior of Poly(butylene terephthalate) (PBT). Ind Eng Chem Res 2022. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.2c03233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Justus Kuhnigk
- Department of Polymer Engineering, University of Bayreuth, Universitätsstraße 30, 95447 Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Niko Krebs
- Department of Polymer Engineering, University of Bayreuth, Universitätsstraße 30, 95447 Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Christian Mielke
- Leibniz-Institut für Polymerforschung Dresden e.V., Hohe Street 6, 01069 Dresden, Germany
| | - Tobias Standau
- Department of Polymer Engineering, University of Bayreuth, Universitätsstraße 30, 95447 Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Doris Pospiech
- Leibniz-Institut für Polymerforschung Dresden e.V., Hohe Street 6, 01069 Dresden, Germany
| | - Holger Ruckdäschel
- Department of Polymer Engineering, University of Bayreuth, Universitätsstraße 30, 95447 Bayreuth, Germany
- Bavarian Polymer Institute and Bayreuth Institute of Macromolecular Research, University of Bayreuth, 95447 Bayreuth, Germany
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Chen XY, Hamdi O, Rodrigue D. Conversion of low density polyethylene foams into auxetic metamaterials. POLYM ADVAN TECHNOL 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/pat.5880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xiao Yuan Chen
- Department of Chemical Engineering Université Laval Quebec Qubec Canada
| | - Ouassim Hamdi
- Department of Chemical Engineering Université Laval Quebec Qubec Canada
| | - Denis Rodrigue
- Department of Chemical Engineering Université Laval Quebec Qubec Canada
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Novel Expandable Epoxy Beads and Epoxy Particle Foam. MATERIALS 2022; 15:ma15124205. [PMID: 35744266 PMCID: PMC9228838 DOI: 10.3390/ma15124205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2022] [Revised: 06/09/2022] [Accepted: 06/10/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Expanded polymeric beads offer the advantage of being able to produce parts with complex geometries through a consolidation process. However, established polymeric beads are made of thermoplastics, deform and melt beyond their temperature services. In this manuscript, a new technique is proposed to fabricate expandable epoxy beads (EEBs), then expand and fuse them to produce epoxy particle foams (EPFs). This technique is called solid-state carbamate foaming technique. For production of EEBs, a mixture of epoxy, carbamate and hardener is prepared and poured into a 10 mL syringe. The mixture is manually extruded into 60 °C water to obtain a cylindric shape. The extrudate is then further cured to obtain an epoxy oligomer behaving rheological tan delta 3 and 2 at 60 °C. The extrudate is cut into pellets to obtain EEBs. The EEBs are then loaded into an aluminum mold and placed in an oven at 160 °C to expand, fuse to obtain EPFs of 212 kg/m3 and 258 kg/m3. The obtained EPFs provide a Tg of 150–154 °C. The fusion boundaries in EPFs are well formed. Thus, the produced EPFs exhibit a compressive modulus of 50–70 MPa, with a torsion storage modulus at 30 °C of 34–56 MPa.
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The Investigation of Key Factors in Polypropylene Extrusion Molding Production Quality. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/app12105122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
This study took food-grade polypropylene packaging products as the research project and discussed how to control the polypropylene extrusion sheet thickness and vacuum thermoforming quality and weight. The research objective was to find the key factors for reducing costs and energy consumption. The key aspects that may influence the polypropylene extrusion molding quality control were analyzed using literature and in-depth interviews with scholars and experts. These four main aspects are (1) key factors of polypropylene extrusion sheet production, (2) key factors of the extrusion line design, (3) key factors of polypropylene forming and mold manufacturing, and (4) key factors of mold and thermoforming line equipment design. These were revised and complemented by the scholar and expert group. There are 49 subitems for discussion. Thirteen scholars and experts were invited to use qualitative and quantitative research methods. A Delphi questionnaire survey team was organized to perform three Delphi questionnaire interviews. The statistical analyses of encoded data such as the mean (M), mode (Mo), and standard deviation (SD) of various survey options were calculated. Seeking a more cautious research theory and result, the K-S simple sample test was used to review the fitness and consistency of the scholars’ and experts’ opinions on key subitem factors. There are ten key factors in the production quality, including “A. Main screw pressure”, “B. Polymer temperature”, “C. T-die lips adjustment thickness”, “D. Cooling rolls pressing stability”, “E. Cooling rolls temperature stability”, “F. Extruder main screw geometric design”, “G. Heating controller is stable”, “H. Thermostatic control”, “I. Vacuum pressure”, and “J. Mold forming area design”. The key factors are not just applicable to classical polypropylene extrusion sheet and thermoforming production but also to related process of extrusion and thermoforming techniques in expanded polypropylene (EPP) sheets and polylactic acid (PLA). This study aims to provide a key technical reference for enterprises to improve quality to enhance the competitiveness of products, reduce production costs, and achieve sustainable development, energy savings, and carbon reductions.
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