Effects of heat treatments on mechanical strength of laser-welded equi-atomic AuCu-6at%Ga alloy

Applications of Laser Welding in Dentistry: A State-of-the-Art Review

The dental industry without lasers is inconceivable right now. This captivating technology has outlasted other possible alternative technologies applied in dentistry in the past due to its precision, accuracy, minimal invasive effect as well as faster operating time. Other alternatives such as soldering, resistance (spot) welding, plasma (torch) welding, and single pulse tungsten inert gas welding have their pros and cons; nevertheless, laser welding remains the most suitable option so far for dental application. This paper attempts to give an insight into the laser principle and types of lasers used for dental purposes, types of dental alloys used by the dentist, and effect of laser parameters on prosthesis/implants. It is apparent from the literature review that laser assisted dental welding will continue to grow and will become an unparalleled technology for dental arena.

Effects of soldering methods on tensile strength of a gold-palladium metal ceramic alloy

STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

The tensile strength obtained by conventional postceramic application soldering and laser postceramic welding may require more energy than microwave postceramic soldering, which could provide similar tensile strength values.

PURPOSE

The purpose of the study was to compare the tensile strength obtained by microwave postceramic soldering, conventional postceramic soldering, and laser postceramic welding.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A gold-palladium metal ceramic alloy and gold-based solder were used in this study. Twenty-seven wax specimens were cast in gold-palladium noble metal and divided into 4 groups: laser welding with a specific postfiller noble metal, microwave soldering with a postceramic solder, conventional soldering with the same postceramic solder used in the microwave soldering group, and a nonsectioned control group. All the specimens were heat treated to simulate a normal porcelain sintering sequence. An Instron Universal Testing Machine was used to measure the tensile strength for the 4 groups. The means were analyzed statistically with 1-way ANOVA. The surface and fracture sites of the specimens were subjectively evaluated for fracture type and porosities by using a scanning electron microscope.

RESULTS

The mean (standard deviation) ultimate tensile strength values were as follows: nonsectioned control 818 ±30 MPa, microwave 516 ±34 MPa, conventional 454 ±37 MPa, and laser weld 191 ±39 MPa. A 1-way ANOVA showed a significant difference in ultimate tensile strength among the groups (F3,23=334.5; P<.001). Follow-up multiple comparisons showed a significant difference among all the groups. Microwave soldering resulted in a higher tensile strength for gold and palladium noble metals than either conventional soldering or laser welding.

CONCLUSION

Conventional soldering resulted in a higher tensile strength than laser welding. Under the experimental conditions described, either microwave or conventional postceramic soldering would appear to satisfy clinical requirements related to tensile strength.

Effect of Nd:YAG laser parameters on the penetration depth of a representative Ni-Cr dental casting alloy

The effects of voltage and laser beam (spot) diameter on the penetration depth during laser beam welding in a representative nickel-chromium (Ni-Cr) dental alloy were the subject of this study. The cast alloy specimens were butted against each other and laser welded at their interface using various voltages (160-390 V) and spot diameters (0.2-1.8 mm) and a constant pulse duration of 10 ms. After welding, the laser beam penetration depths in the alloy were measured. The results were plotted and were statistically analyzed with a two-way ANOVA, employing voltage and spot diameter as the discriminating variables and using Holm-Sidak post hoc method (a = 0.05). The maximum penetration depth was 4.7 mm. The penetration depth increased as the spot diameter decreased at a fixed voltage and increased as the voltage increased at a fixed spot diameter. Varying the parameters of voltage and laser spot diameter significantly affected the depth of penetration of the dental cast Ni-Cr alloy. The penetration depth of laser-welded Ni-Cr dental alloys can be accurately adjusted based on the aforementioned results, leading to successfully joined/repaired dental restorations, saving manufacturing time, reducing final cost, and enhancing the longevity of dental prostheses.

Fracture strength of different soldered and welded orthodontic joining configurations with and without filling material

The aim of this study was to compare the mechanical strength of different joints made by conventional brazing, TIG and laser welding with and without filling material. Five standardized joining configurations of orthodontic wire in spring hard quality were used: round, cross, 3 mm length, 9 mm length and 7 mm to orthodontic band. The joints were made by five different methods: brazing, tungsten inert gas (TIG) and laser welding with and without filling material. For the original orthodontic wire and for each kind of joint configuration or connecting method 10 specimens were carefully produced, totalizing 240. The fracture strengths were measured with a universal testing machine (Zwick 005). Data were analyzed by ANOVA (p=0.05) and Bonferroni post hoc test (p=0.05). In all cases, brazing joints were ruptured on a low level of fracture strength (186-407 N). Significant differences between brazing and TIG or laser welding (p<0.05, Bonferroni post hoc test) were found in each joint configuration. The highest fracture strength means were observed for laser welding with filling material and 3 mm joint length (998 N). Using filling materials, there was a clear tendency to higher mean values of fracture strength in TIG and laser welding. However, statistically significant differences were found only in the 9-mm long joints (p<0.05, Bonferroni post hoc test). In conclusion, the fracture strength of welded joints was positively influenced by the additional use of filling material. TIG welding was comparable to laser welding except for the impossibility of joining orthodontic wire with orthodontic band.

Dimensional change of laser-welded gold alloy induced by heat treatment

PURPOSE

This study examined the effects of laser welding and heat treatment on the dimensional change of cast gold alloy frameworks.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Pairs of cast gold alloy plates were matched, fixed in a jig, and welded in a laser-welding machine at constant welding parameters. The specimens were welded unilaterally (on one surface) or bilaterally (on two surfaces) with five spots as follows: two ends fixed/unilaterally welded (A); two ends fixed/bilaterally welded (AA); one end fixed/unilaterally welded (B); two ends fixed/welded on one surface and then one end fixed/welded on the opposite surface (AB); or one end fixed/bilaterally welded (BB). The dimensional change was determined by measuring the gap between the jig base and one end of the specimen after each welding application. Dimensional change was also measured after two different heat treatments (softening and hardening). The results were analyzed using a two-way ANOVA and Duncan's test (p < 0.05).

RESULTS

The dimensional change of the specimens fixed at only one end on either surface (AB, B, and BB) was higher compared with the two ends-fixed specimens (A and AA) after laser welding. The heat treatments also increased the dimensional change in all groups except for the B group. The dimensional change was similar for each fixing method between the two types of heat treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

The method of fixing the specimens in the jig significantly affected the amount of dimensional change of the gold alloys. The heat treatments of the laser-welded specimens increased the dimensional change by releasing the residual stress.

Nd:YAG laser penetration into cast titanium and gold alloy with different surface preparations

This study investigated the effect of surface preparation on the Nd:YAG laser penetration into cast titanium and gold alloy. Cast blocks of each metal were given four different surface preparations: (i) coloured with black marker; (ii) air-abraded with 50 microm Al2O3; (iii) ground with SiC points and (iv) polished with 1 microm Al2O3 (mirror-polished). Two blocks with each of the surface preparations were abutted and laser-welded at their interface using the voltages of 210-260 V in increments of 10 V. After the welded blocks were mechanically separated, the laser penetration was measured using computer graphics. Regardless of the surface preparation, an increase in voltage increased the laser penetration for both metals. The laser penetration into titanium prepared with black marker and air-abrasion was significantly deeper than into the titanium ground with SiC points and mirror-polished. Although there were no statistical differences in penetration among the surface preparations for the gold alloy, the penetration in the mirror-polished specimens was shallower than any of the other preparation methods at higher voltages of 240-260 V. The results obtained in this study suggested that broken metal frameworks with finished surfaces should be painted with black marker or air-abraded before laser welding.

Laser welding of cast titanium and dental alloys using argon shielding

PURPOSE

This study investigated the effect of argon gas shielding on the strengths of laser-welded cast Ti and Ti-6Al-7Nb and compared the results to those of two dental casting alloys.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Cast plates of Ti, Ti-6Al-7Nb, gold, and Co-Cr alloy were prepared. After polishing the surfaces to be welded, two plates were abutted and welded using Nd:YAG laser at a pulse duration of 10 ms, spot diameter of 1 mm, and voltage of 200 V. Five specimens were prepared for each metal by bilaterally welding them with three or five spots either with or without argon shielding. The failure load and percent elongation were measured at a crosshead speed of 1.0 mm/min.

RESULTS

The factor of argon shielding significantly affected the failure load and elongation of the laser-welded specimens. The failure loads of argon-shielded laser-welded CP Ti and Ti-6Al-7Nb were greater compared with the failure loads of specimens welded without argon shielding for both three- and five-spot welding. Regardless of argon shielding, the failure loads of the laser-welded gold alloy were approximately half that of the control specimens. In contrast, the failure loads of the nonshielded laser-welded Co-Cr alloy were greater. The percent elongations positively correlated with the failure loads.

CONCLUSIONS

The use of argon shielding is necessary for effective laser-welding of CP Ti and Ti-6Al-7Nb but not for gold and Co-Cr alloy.

Effect of Heat Treatment on Joint Properties of Laser-Welded Ag-Au-Cu-Pd and Co-Cr Alloys

PURPOSE

This study investigated the effect of heat treatment on the strengths of laser-welded cast Ag-Au-Cu-Pd and Co-Cr alloys.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Cast plates of Ag-Au-Cu-Pd (Ag) and Co-Cr (Co) alloys were prepared. After polishing the surfaces to be welded, the plates were matched and butted Ag to Ag (Ag/Ag), Co to Co (Co/Co), and Ag to Co (Ag/Co) and welded using Nd:YAG laser at a pulse duration of 10 ms, spot diameter of 1 mm, and voltage of 200 V. Five specimens were prepared for each experimental condition by bilaterally welding them with five spots. The Ag/Ag, Ag/Co, and control Ag underwent two heat treatments-softening (ST) and hardening (AH). A group of as-cast specimens serving as controls was not given either heat treatment. The failure load and percent elongation were measured at a crosshead speed of 1.0 mm/min.

RESULTS

The fracture resistance of Co/Co was similar to that of the control Co, while the fracture resistance of Co/Ag was significantly lower than that of both like alloy pairings for all heat-treating conditions. The control Ag had greater fracture resistance after AH and lower fracture resistance after ST. The AH treatment increased the fracture resistance, and the ST treatment decreased the fracture resistance of both Ag/Ag and Co/Ag, although not significantly. The percentage of elongation appeared to positively correlate with the fracture resistance results.

CONCLUSIONS

The results obtained in this study indicated that the age-hardening heat treatment increased the weld strength between the paired Au-Ag-Cu-Pd alloys and between the Au-Ag-Cu-Pd and Co-Cr alloys.

Penetration depth into dental casting alloys by Nd:YAG laser

This study investigated the effect of laser-beam welding conditions [voltage (V) and spot diameter (mm)] on the penetration depth into dental casting alloys. Castings (3.0 mm x 8.0 mm x 50 mm) were prepared from the metals used in this study: commercially pure titanium (CP Ti), Ti-6Al-4V, Ti-6Al-7Nb, cobalt-chromium alloy (Co-Cr) and Type IV gold alloy. Two cast blocks of each metal were butted against one another at the 8.0 x 50-mm surfaces. They were then welded at their interface under the following conditions: voltage of 160-340 V, spot diameter of 0.4-1.6 mm, and pulse duration of 10 ms. After laser welding, the blocks were separated, and the penetration depth into each alloy was measured. The data were analyzed with the use of ANOVA at the p < 0.05 level of significance. The penetration depths were as follows: CP Ti (0.29-6.45 mm), Ti-6Al-4V (0.32-5.24 mm), Ti-6Al-7Nb (0.34-5.65 mm), Co-Cr (0.24-6.15 mm), and Type IV gold alloy (0.12-5.22 mm). The voltage and spot diameter affected the penetration depth into the metals tested. When the voltage increased and the spot diameter decreased, the penetration depth increased for each metal. Selecting suitable conditions for laser welding to obtain sufficient penetration depth for the optimal thickness of the metal is important when welding prostheses.

Mechanical strength of laser-welded cobalt-chromium alloy

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of the output energy of laser welding and welding methods on the joint strength of cobalt-chromium (Co-Cr) alloy. Two types of cast Co-Cr plates were prepared, and transverse sections were made at the center of the plate. The cut surfaces were butted against one another, and the joints welded with a laser-welding machine at several levels of output energy with the use of two methods. The fracture force required to break specimens was determined by means of tensile testing. For the 0.5-mm-thick specimens, the force required to break the 0.5-mm laser-welded specimens at currents of 270 and 300 A was not statistically different (p > 0.05) from the results for the nonwelded control specimens. The force required to break the 1.0-mm specimens double-welded at a current of 270 A was the highest value among the 1.0-mm laser-welded specimens. The results suggested that laser welding under the appropriate conditions improved the joint strength of cobalt- chromium alloy.

Optimization of operator and physical parameters for laser welding of dental materials

OBJECTIVE

Interactions between lasers and materials are very complex phenomena. The success of laser welding procedures in dental metals depends on the operator's control of many parameters. The aims of this study were to evaluate factors relating to the operator's dexterity and the choice of the welding parameters (power, pulse duration and therefore energy), which are recognized determinants of weld quality.

DESIGN

In vitro laboratory study.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

FeNiCr dental drawn wires were chosen for these experiments because their properties are well known. Different diameters of wires were laser welded, then tested in tension and compared to the control material as extruded, in order to evaluate the quality of the welding. Scanning electron microscopy of the fractured zone and micrograph observations perpendicular and parallel to the wire axis were also conducted in order to analyse the depth penetration and the quality of the microstructure. Additionally, the micro-hardness (Vickers type) was measured both in the welded and the heat-affected zones and then compared to the non-welded alloy.

RESULTS

Adequate combination of energy and pulse duration with the power set in the range between 0.8 to 1 kW appears to improve penetration depth of the laser beam and success of the welding procedure. Operator skill is also an important variable.

CONCLUSION

The variation in laser weld quality in dental FeNiCr wires attributable to operator skill can be minimized by optimization of the physical welding parameters.

Tensile strength and elongation of laser-welded Ti and Ti-6AL-7NB

This study established data demonstrating the possible laser-welded strengths of cast Ti and Ti-6Al-7Nb and compared them to those of two dental-casting alloys. Cast plates of Ti, Ti-6Al-7Nb, gold, and Co-Cr alloy were prepared. After polishing the surfaces to be welded, two plates were abutted and welded using an Nd:YAG laser at a pulse duration of 10 ms, spot diameter of 1 mm, and voltage of 200 V. Five specimens were prepared for each metal by welding either three or five spots unilaterally or bilaterally. The fracture load and percent elongation were measured at a crosshead speed of 1.0 mm/min. The bilaterally welded specimens performed significantly greater than unilaterally welded specimens in both fracture load and elongation whether they were welded with three or five spots per side. The bilaterally welded Ti and Ti-6Al-7Nb specimens were nearly as strong as their corresponding control specimens, whereas the gold and Co-Cr specimens were approximately half as strong. When a large proportion of the cross-sectional area of the joint is laser welded, the strength of the laser-welded portion of the cast Ti and Ti-6Al-7Nb may approach or equal that of the nonwelded metal frameworks.

Machinability of cast commercial titanium alloys

This study investigated the machinability of cast orthopedic titanium (metastable beta) alloys for possible application to dentistry and compared the results with those of cast CP Ti, Ti-6Al-4V, and Ti-6Al-7Nb, which are currently used in dentistry. Machinability was determined as the amount of metal removed with the use of an electric handpiece and a SiC abrasive wheel turning at four different rotational wheel speeds. The ratios of the amount of metal removed and the wheel volume loss (machining ratio) were also evaluated. Based on these two criteria, the two alpha + beta alloys tested generally exhibited better results for most of the wheel speeds compared to all the other metals tested. The machinability of the three beta alloys employed was similar or worse, depending on the speed of the wheel, compared to CP Ti.