The Effect of Color on the Use of Electronic Body Protectors in Taekwondo Matches

Effect of the red uniform on the judgment of position or movement used in Wushu Routine, evaluated by practitioners of the modality

In the artistic sports program, the referee' scores directly determine the final results of the athletes. Wushu is a artistic sport that has a Chinese characteristic and has the potential to become an official competition at the Summer Olympic. In this study we tested whether a red uniform color affects Wushu Routine practitioners' ratings of athletes' position or movement of Wushu Routine. We also tested whether the effect varied depending on the gender of the athlete and the practitioner, and depending on whether female practitioners were in the ovulation phase of their menstrual cycle. Male (Experiment 1: N = 72) and female (Experiment 1: N = 72; Experiment 2: N = 52) participants who major in Wushu Routine were recruited to take a referee's perspective and rate the movement quality of male and female athletes wearing red or blue uniforms. The results of Experiment 1 showed that both male and female athletes wearing red uniform (compared to blue uniform) received higher ratings (p = .002, η2 = .066; p = .014, η2 = .043), and the red effect was especially strong when male practitioners rated female athletes (p = .002, η2 = .069). The results of Experiment 2, in an all-female sample, showed that in most cases there was no difference in ratings made by women in the ovulation and non-ovulation phases of their menstrual cycle, with the exception of their ratings of male athletes wearing red; in this condition, women gave higher ratings when they were in the ovulation phase of their cycle (p = .026). The results suggest that there is a red effect in an artistic sport like Wushu Routine, in which gender and the female menstrual cycle play an important role.

The effect of the colour red in 20 years of Olympic taekwondo

The objectives of this study were (1) to analyse the relationship between the colour of the protectors and the outcome of 895 matches in the six Olympic Games in which taekwondo has been included, and (2) to analyse the effect of confounding factors through the different degrees of asymmetry between contestants. Data were recorded on the colour of each athlete's protectors, the scoring system, the sex of the athlete, the weight category, the round of competition, the winner of the match, the method of victory and the points scored by each athlete. Among the main results, a relationship emerged between male athletes wearing red and winning the match (p = 0.034) under the manual scoring system. There were relationships between female athletes wearing blue and winning the match in the quarterfinal (p = 0.014) and last 16 rounds (p = 0.021) using the manual and electronic scoring systems respectively. In female athletes, relationships emerged between wearing blue and winning the match with small (p = 0.008) and medium (p = 0.047) asymmetry under the manual system and with large (p = 0.036) asymmetry under the electronic system. The electronic system had a positive impact on the fairness of Olympic competition. Red tends to gain in importance as the asymmetry between the two athletes decreases, but not enough to give a competitive advantage. The results for Olympic competition held in the now concluded era of the manual system confirmed the presence of the colour effect as a result of psychological factors attributable to referees and judges.

The Relationship between the Color of Electronic Protectors and the Outcome in Taekwondo Matches: Is There Fairness in National Competitions?

Although research on the effect of color in taekwondo has involved several international competitions, no previous study has investigated the presence of this phenomenon in national-level competitions. The main objective of this study was to analyze the relationship between the color protectors and success in 1155 taekwondo matches of the Italian and Uzbekistan Senior Championships (ITA-SC and UZB-SC) (2019 and 2021). The results showed no relationship between the color protectors and the match outcome, in both ITA-SC and UZB-SC (p = 0.71, V = 0.01; p = 0.61, V = 0.02). Moreover, no relationship emerged between the color protectors and the match outcome in the four editions of the SC. Stratifying analyses by weight category and sex, males showed positive relationships between the color blue/red and winning the match in 3 and 1 of 16 weight categories, respectively. Contrary, females showed positive relationships between the color blue/red and winning the match in 1 and 3 of 16 weight categories, respectively. Analyzing the two national contexts found that, in both the Italian and Uzbek contexts, matches in 2 and 2 of 16 weight categories were won by athletes wearing blue and red protectors, respectively. Significant relationships emerged between the color blue and winning the match with small asymmetry in the men’s UZB-SC and between the color red and winning the match with large asymmetry in the female ITA-SC. The implementation of the electronic point recording system for the body and head has had a positive impact on fairness in national taekwondo competitions, did not detect any effect of color related to cultural context, and did not allow for the color red to tip the scales between losing and winning in matches between athletes of similar ability and strength.

Comparison between the KPNP and Daedo Protection Scoring Systems through a Technical-Tactical Analysis of Elite Taekwondo Athletes

Background: In the last two decades, the use of technology has been incorporated into taekwondo, changing the rules of the sport to employ a more objective scoring system. The current electronic Protection Scoring Systems (PSS) include sensors that register the number and power of the hits scored, but these may interfere with athlete’s techniques and tactics. This study aimed to analyze the technical-tactical differences in elite taekwondoists using two different PSS. Methods: We systematically observed 112 combats involving 224 athletes, and their actions were registered and analyzed using contingency tables. Results: Eight hundred twenty-seven effective actions were tagged, and differences were found in the types of kicks performed using different PSS. For the total sample, there were differences between PSS in technical actions (X2 = 36.08(10); p < 0.01; V = 0.21), tactical actions (X2 = 10.73(3); p < 0.05; V = 0.11), and hitting side (X2 = 30.97(1); p < 0.01; V = 0.19). In men, the differences in techniques and tactics between different PSS were found in technical actions (X2 = 27.15(10); p < 0.01; V = 0.25), guard position (X2 = 14.94(1); p < 0.01; V = 0.18), and hitting side (X2 = 11.07(1); p < 0.01; V = 0.16), while in women, significant differences were found in technical actions (X2 = 37.03(8); p < 0.01; V = 0.32), tactical actions (X2 = 24.45(3); p < 0.01; V = 0.26), guard position (X2 = 3.95(1); p < 0.05; V = 0.10), hitting side (X2 = 19.27(1); p < 0.01; V = 0.23), and laterality (X2 = 16.32(3); p < 0.01; V = 0.21). Conclusions: The present study evidenced a difference in the technical-tactical behavior of elite taekwondoists as a result of the PSS used in combat, with more marked differences in female athletes. These findings also suggest the need to adapt and review the PSS to effectively score in the same way.

The Effect of Red and Blue on Gross and Fine Motor Tasks: Confirming the Inverted-U Hypothesis

Previous studies have shown that the color red can affect basic motor functioning. However, these studies utilized simple gross motor tasks rather than those assessing complex fine motor skills. Moreover, these empirical studies were theoretically based on the threat–behavior link in human and non-human animals, and neglected the relationship between arousal and motor performance. According to the Yerkes–Dodson law and the inverted-U hypothesis in sport psychology, for simple motor tasks, high arousal (associated with the color red) is more advantageous than low arousal (associated with the color blue); for complex motor tasks, low arousal (blue color) is more advantageous than high arousal (red color). The current research examined the effect of color on different kinds of motor skills (fine motor and gross motor) based on the inverted U-hypothesis. In Experiment 1, we examined the effect of red and blue on dart-throwing performance, whereas in Experiment 2, we examined the effect of red and blue on grip strength performance. The results showed that performance of fine motor skill (dart-throwing) in the blue condition was better than in the red condition, and performance of gross motor skill (handgrip) in the red context was better than in the blue context. These results indicate that the type of motor skill assessed moderates the influence of red and blue on motor performance.

When Taekwondo Referees See Red, but It Is an Electronic System That Gives the Points

Previous studies in taekwondo have considered the use of the manual scoring system or the electronic system with only the use of the electronic body protector. The objective of this study was to analyze the relationship between the color protectors and success in 1,327 taekwondo matches from six World Grand Prix Series of two 4-year Olympic periods when electronic body and head protectors are used. In the total sample, the results did not show a relationship between the match outcome and the color of the protectors (p = 0.97, C = 0.001). For the individual six editions, the results showed a positive and strong relationship between wearing blue protectors and winning matches and one between wearing red protectors and winning matches (p = 0.001, C = 0.19; p = 0.001; C = 0.19). Regarding the weight categories, 8 and 5 of 48 showed higher percentages of blue and red winners, respectively. Regarding sex, male competitors showed a positive relationship between blue color and winning the match in 6 of 24 weight categories, and wearing red and winning the match was shown in 2 of 24 weight categories. Female competitors showed a positive relationship between blue color and winning the match in 2 of 24 weight categories, and wearing red and winning the match was shown in 3 of 24 weight categories. When it comes to the influence of being a seeded athlete, the results did show a significant confounding effect on the color of the protectors worn by the winner of the match in 2 of 13 weight categories in which a color effect was observed (p = 0.02, C = 0.28; p = 0.02, C = 0.28). In conclusion, wearing red does not provide a higher chance of winning the match. It seems that seeing red has a stronger effect than wearing red, especially in male contenders. Moreover, being a seeded athlete does not explain the result of the match. It seems that the introduction of the electronic helmet protector, in addition to the electronic body protector, made the scoring system more objective, decreasing the advantage of wearing red in winning matches.

The Impact of Wearing and Perceiving Colors on Hormonal, Physiological, and Psychological Parameters in Cycling

This study examines the influence of wearing and perceiving colors in a cycling setting while also examining cortisol, heart rate, estimated maximum oxygen consumption, and subjective performance ratings. A total of 99 individuals completed the study, consisting of cortisol measurements, which compared baseline values to those after changing into a red or blue outfit, and a maximum cycling task performed wearing the same outfit while competing against a video opponent in red or blue. Each participant completed the protocol twice on separate days. Wearing a colored outfit showed no influence on cortisol levels. Regarding the cycling task, the participants wearing red had higher maximum heart rate values than when wearing blue. In addition, the results revealed increased maximum heart rate and maximum oxygen consumption values when perceiving an opponent in blue, especially when the participant also wore blue. No differences were found for the median heart rate or performance ratings.

Comparison of Patterns of Skill Actions between Analog and Electronic Protectors in Taekwondo: A Log-Linear Analysis

The purpose of this study was to compare the patterns of skill actions executed during Taekwondo competitions when wearing and not wearing an electronic protector. To achieve this purpose, 110 matches from two university-level Taekwondo championships were taped and analyzed. The performance skills were composed of 18 detailed skills and grouped into five categories by considering kicks to the target area (chest or head/face). The data were organized in the form of a contingency table that demonstrated the relationship between grouping factors (skills, protectors, win–lose, and weight division). A log-linear analysis was carried out to investigate the effect of the grouping factors (IVs) on the skills (DV) using SPSS Statistics. The results obtained in the present study can be summarized as follows. First, the overall proportion of “points” called by the judge for the general protector (32.3%) was approximately 3.4 times that for the electronic protector (9.5%). Second, for the electronic protector, the proportions of kicks to the chest area were in the following order: Roundhouse kick (R-Kick) (44.7%), Pushing kick (P-kick) (19.3%), Turn kick (T-kick) (8.7%), and Double roundhouse kick (DR-kick) (7.6%). For the general protector, the order differed slightly, with T-kick and P-kick switched around with different proportions. Third, the proportion of kicks to the head/face was higher for the electronic protector (19.8%) than for the general protector (10.4%), and this difference was even more distinct when the light (−68kg) (33.5% (electronic) vs. 6.5% (general)) and heavy (+85kg) (1.4% (electronic) vs. 13.3% (general)) weight divisions were compared. Finally, the match status (win/lose) had no significant effect on the pattern of playing actions for both the protectors. The result from this study suggests that skill frequency of linear simple movement for activating electrical protector’s sensor is increased, while the one of rotational complex movement is decreased gradually. Additionally, headgear without sensors, such as for a hit movement to the face/head part, represent characteristics of increased attack skills to the facial area; these scores are provided through subjective judgement, and consequently changes in performance skills can occur.

Sweating the connection of uniform colours and success in sport: No evidence for the red win effect in elite women's NCAA basketball

Efforts to research the link between uniform colours and performance in sport have gained momentum in recent years demonstrating a red superiority effect. The current investigation identified a gender gap in participation between laboratory experimental studies of performance, which are dominated by women participants, and archival game analysis research, which is almost exclusively conducted in elite men's sports. To address this disparity, we conducted the first dedicated exploration of uniform colours with women's American collegiate basketball teams during the national annual tournament (NCAA) in a period spanning eight seasons (2012-19). In contrast to the evidence from experimental research, we failed to detect an effect and the results remained null when several colours were tested and ranking was considered. Based on the findings, we conclude with mounting confidence that uniform colours do not exert influence over winning in relatively long-duration, low aggression team sports with substantial physical contact. We discuss the results in relationship to the colour-in-context theory (Elliot, A. J., & Maier, M. A. (2012). Colour-in-context theory. In Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 45, pp. 61-125). Academic Press.) and highlight its shortcomings pertaining to sex as a moderator.

Human colour in mate choice and competition

The colour of our skin and clothing affects how others perceive us and how we behave. Human skin colour varies conspicuously with genetic ancestry, but even subtle changes in skin colour due to diet, blood oxygenation and hormone levels influence social perceptions. In this review, we describe the theoretical and empirical frameworks in which human colour is researched. We explore how subtle skin colour differences relate to judgements of health and attractiveness. Also, because humans are one of the few organisms able to manipulate their apparent colour, we review how cosmetics and clothing are implicated in courtship and competition, both inside the laboratory and in the real world. Research on human colour is in its infancy compared with human psychophysics and colour research in non-human animals, and hence we present best-practice guidelines for methods and reporting, which we hope will improve the validity and reproducibility of studies on human coloration.This article is part of the themed issue 'Animal coloration: production, perception, function and application'.