Do Chameleons Lead Better? A Meta-Analysis of the Self-Monitoring and Leadership Relationship

The relationship between self-monitoring and leadership has been debated. We attempt to resolve this debate through a meta-analysis (N = 9,029 across 55 samples). Since this is the first meta-analysis that focuses on this relationship, we were able to study both focal constructs at a granular level. As hypothesized, self-monitoring is positively associated with leadership emergence and leadership effectiveness. Whereas self-monitoring is positively related to managerial leadership, its relationship with transactional leadership is non-significant. Contrary to our prediction that self-monitoring is negatively related to authentic leadership and to transformational leadership, we found positive relationships. Importantly, the relationship between self-monitoring and leadership variables is typically non-significant when the latter is measured by subordinate ratings. This casts doubt on the general finding that self-monitoring is positively related to leadership. Also, the relationships significantly differ when self-monitoring was measured by different scales. Implications for theory and practice are discussed.

Influence of periaqueductal gray on other salience network nodes predicts social sensitivity

The intrinsic connectivity of the salience network (SN) plays an important role in social behavior, however the directional influence that individual nodes have on each other has not yet been fully determined. In this study, we used spectral dynamic causal modeling to characterize the effective connectivity patterns in the SN for 44 healthy older adults and for 44 patients with behavioral variant frontotemporal dementia (bvFTD) who have focal SN dysfunction. We examined the relationship of SN effective connections with individuals' socioemotional sensitivity, using the revised self‐monitoring scale, an informant‐facing questionnaire that assesses sensitivity to expressive behavior. Overall, average SN effective connectivity for bvFTD patients differs from healthy older adults in cortical, hypothalamic, and thalamic nodes. For the majority of healthy individuals, strong periaqueductal gray (PAG) output to right cortical (p < .01) and thalamic nodes (p < .05), but not PAG output to other central pattern generators contributed to sensitivity to socioemotional cues. This effect did not exist for the majority of bvFTD patients; PAG output toward other SN nodes was weak, and this lack of output negatively influenced socioemotional sensitivity. Instead, input to the left vAI from other SN nodes supported patients' sensitivity to others' socioemotional behavior (p < .05), though less effectively. The key role of PAG output to cortical and thalamic nodes for socioemotional sensitivity suggests that its core functions, that is, generating autonomic changes in the body, and moreover representing the internal state of the body, is necessary for optimal social responsiveness, and its breakdown is central to bvFTD patients' social behavior deficits.

The link between the brain volume derived index and the determinants of social performance

Motivation, defined as the energizing of behavior in pursuit of a goal, is a fundamental element of our interaction with the world and with each other. Furthermore, as it is known that cooperation leads to higher levels of performance than do individual conditions, empathic concern is also crucial to all forms of helping relationships. A growing number of studies indicate that motivation and empathy are associated not only with organizational performance and study achievements, but also with the human brain. However, to date, no definite neuroimaging-derived measures are available to measure motivation and empathy objectively. The current research evaluated the association of motivation and empathy with the whole brain using the gray-matter brain healthcare quotient (GM-BHQ), an MRI-based quotient. Participants were 47 healthy adults. All subjects underwent structural T1-weighted imaging. Motivation levels were evaluated using four motivation scales: Behavioral Activation System (BAS), Self-Monitoring Scale (SMS), Self-Control Scale (SCS), and Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS). Interaction levels, including empathic concern, were evaluated using four subscales of the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI). It was found that the GM-BHQ was most significantly sensitive to the BAS scale (p = 0.002). Furthermore, the GM-BHQ was moderately sensitive to the SMS (p = 0.028) and subscales of the IRI (p = 0.044 for Fantasy and p = 0.036 for Empathic Concern). However, no significant association was found between the GM-BHQ and other variables (BIS and SCS). These results suggest that the GM-BHQ might reflect motivation and empathic concern.

An Exploration of the Dishonest Side of Self–Monitoring: Links to Moral Disengagement and Unethical Business Decision Making

The majority of research on self–monitoring has focused on the positive aspects of this personality trait. The goal of the present research was to shed some light on the potential negative side of self–monitoring and resulting consequences in two independent studies. Study 1 demonstrated that, in addition to being higher on Extraversion, high self–monitors are also more likely to be low on Honesty–Humility, which is characterized by a tendency to be dishonest and driven by self–gain. Study 2 was designed to investigate the consequences of this dishonest side of self–monitoring using two previously unexamined outcomes: moral disengagement and unethical business decision making. Results showed that high self–monitors are more likely to engage in unethical business decision making and that this relationship is mediated by the propensity to engage in moral disengagement. In addition, these negative effects of self–monitoring were found to be due to its low Honesty–Humility aspect, rather than its high Extraversion side. Further investigation showed similar effects for the Other–Directedness and Acting (but not Extraversion) self–monitoring subscales. These findings provide valuable insight into previously unexamined negative consequences of self–monitoring and suggest important directions for future research on self–monitoring. Copyright © 2013 European Association of Personality Psychology

THE INFLUENCE OF NETWORK BUILDING ON THE INNOVATIVE WORK BEHAVIOUR OF SELF-MONITORING INDIVIDUALS: INTEGRATING PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL CAPITAL PERSPECTIVES

Network building ability is an important skill that has positive implications for individuals’ innovative work behaviour. Although high self-monitors are capable of building strategic relationships, little is known about how this capability helps these individuals innovate in service organisations, particularly generating, promoting and realising innovative ideas. We proposed that network building ability may act as an important mediator through which self-monitoring links to innovative work behaviour. Using structural equation modelling to analyse 417 completed questionnaires from employees in the United Arab Emirates service sector, we found that high self-monitors were more likely to have high network building abilities, which in turn help support their innovative work behaviour. The evidence suggests that network building ability fully mediates the relationship between self-monitoring and idea generation and idea promotion, while partially mediating the relationship between self-monitoring and idea realisation. We discuss the theoretical contributions and managerial implications of the study.

Enablers for Advancement of Women into Leadership Position

Women in a leadership position has been a matter of concern the world over especially in information technology (IT)/ information technology enabled services (ITES). However, for the advancement of women in leadership positions, individual characteristics are not enough. Besides individual factors, it is the detection of organizational factors that enable the advancement of women into leadership positions. The present article develops a multidimensional scale on the perceived enablers for the advancement of women in leadership position in the IT/ITES sector. The scale considers both individual factors (characteristics) and organizational factors, such as welfare schemes, career development support, and training. The article also reveals that individual factors, such as self-confidence, ambition, and perceived competency are also enablers of advancing women to leadership positions. Researchers could examine the considered dimensions of the proposed scale in other sectors and with respect to other constructs related to women's work-life balance.

Three Nightmare Traits in Leaders

This review offers an integration of dark leadership styles with dark personality traits. The core of dark leadership consists of Three Nightmare Traits (TNT)—leader dishonesty, leader disagreeableness, and leader carelessness—that are conceptualized as contextualized personality traits aligned with respectively (low) honesty-humility, (low) agreeableness, and (low) conscientiousness. It is argued that the TNT, when combined with high extraversion and low emotionality, can have serious (“explosive”) negative consequences for employees and their organizations. A Situation-Trait-Outcome Activation (STOA) model is presented in which a description is offered of situations that are attractive to TNT leaders (situation activation), situations that activate TNT traits (trait activation), and the kinds of outcomes that may result from TNT behaviors (outcome activation). Subsequently, the TNT and STOA models are combined to offer a description of the organizational actions that may strengthen or weaken the TNT during six career stages: attraction, selection, socialization, production, promotion, and attrition. Except for mainly negative consequences of the TNT, possible positive consequences of TNT leadership are also explored, and an outline of a research program is offered that may provide answers to the most pressing questions in dark leadership research.

Women, Leadership, and Empowerment

This paper is a review of leadership research, focusing primarily on women as leaders. The more recent perspective of studying leaders by examining followers is included; but research is sparse as to how leaders are perceived as empowering by their subordinates. A study in progress, conducted by Denmark, Nielson, and Scholl, indicates that stereotypes were more typically held by women against female leaders. However, a leader's ability to be empowering varies with status. The higher the status, the more empowering that individual is perceived, whether female or male. Yet, more men than women held higher status positions. More women are needed in high-level positions to better assess leadership and empowerment.

Self-Monitoring as a Predictor of Leader Emergence

Conceptualizing the relationship between self-monitoring and leader emergence as a process suggests that high self-monitors are able to evaluate cognitively their situations to determine the behaviors necessary to emerge as leaders Having identified these behaviors, the individuals may act in a way that could lead others to perceive them as leaders. To test this, two studies were conducted. The first study used self-report data on self-monitoring and leader emergence obtained from 120 undergraduate business students. Analyses indicated that high self-monitors were more likely to report a propensity to emerge in leadership roles when in group situations. The second study extended the investigation by evaluating the perceptions of all group members concerning who emerged as the leader in group activities. Data on self-monitoring and both self and other perceptions of leader emergence were gathered from 116 undergraduate business students. Results of this study support the findings of Study 1 on self-perceptions but suggest that self-monitoring may not be directly related to actual perceptions of leadership by others. These findings provide additional understanding of the previously established relationship between self-monitoring and leader emergence as perceived by others.

Toward a Two-Track Model of Leadership Training

The personality typology of high versus low self-monitoring is presented as a possible moderator of leadership training. The behavior of high self-monitoring individuals is guided by situational factors; these individuals are capable of accurate modifications of their behavior to correspond to social situations, and they are especially skilled in diagnosing social situations. Hence, high self-monitoring leaders should benefit most from leadership training requiring leaders'behavior to change as a function of group contingencies (Track I training). In contrast, the behavior of low self-monitoring individuals is displayed in accordance with internal, dispositional traits and values. These leaders should profit most from training that instructs leaders to alter organizational structures (relationships with boss or with the subordinate group) to produce an effective match between the leader's intrinsic behavioral style and group contingencies (Track I training).

Mapping the Interpersonal Underworld

This study focuses on development of self-analytic groups as a sequence of specific social realities. Assuming that the "cast" (composition) of a group is a determining factor in its actual enactment of this sequence of social realities, the question arises whether group members, who performed specific central roles on the various "stages" of group development, can be differentiated in terns of their "role scripts." The theoretical model, conceptually connecting stages, roles, and scripts, is presented first. Discriminant analysis on questionnaire profiles of 60 graduate students shows that the 4 hypothesized groups of (observed) actors (dependency leader, disciplinarian, conciliator, and nonconformer) are indeedsignificantly different. However, a solution with l0differenttypes shows better results: shaper, isolate, weak sibling, saboteur, organizer, tyrant, hero, leader, idol, and seducer; as we labeled thent. Finally, as a heuristic attempt to generate more specific hypotheses for future studies, compositions of the role scripts are made.

Self-Monitoring and Leader Emergence

The present research seeks to further understanding of the relationship between self-monitoring and leader emergence in groups. It does so by focusing on two proposed moderators of this relationship: sex of the group members and nature of the task confronting the group. On the basis of previous research, it was hypothesized that high self-monitoring would be related to leader emergence for males, but not for females, in mixed-sex groups. Further, the relationship between self-monitoring and leader emergence was hypothesized to be stronger for a task providing minimal feedback on the task competence of group members. These hypotheses were tested in a long-term study of natural mixed-sex groups. The sex-moderator hypothesis was supported, but the task-moderator hypothesis was not. Post hoc analyses suggested that high self-monitors emerge as group leaders because they are more adaptive in their behavior than low self-monitors. Both theoretical and practical implications of the results are discussed.

A Process Investigation of Self-Monitoring and Leader Emergence

Although previous research has shown that high self-monitors tend to emerge as group leaders, little is known about the processes by which this personality trait influences leader emergence. Extrapolating from self-monitoring theory (Snyder, 1987), it was postulated that high self-monitors emerge as group leaders because they are sensitive to, and act on, social cues regarding appropriate leader style, whereas low self-monitors emerge as leaders as a function of favorable attitudes toward leadership. Two hypotheses corresponding to these postulates were tested in a laboratory experiment conducted on 68 business students assigned to 4-person problem-solving groups in an organization simulation. Both hypotheses were supported, thus showing the value of self-monitoring theory for furthering the understanding of leader emergence within groups. The implications of these findings for selfmonitoring theory, as well as for the measurement and development of organization leadership, are explored.

Using Item Response Theory to Develop Measures of Acquisitive and Protective Self-Monitoring From the Original Self-Monitoring Scale

For the past 40 years, the conventional univariate model of self-monitoring has reigned as the dominant interpretative paradigm in the literature. However, recent findings associated with an alternative bivariate model challenge the conventional paradigm. In this study, item response theory is used to develop measures of the bivariate model of acquisitive and protective self-monitoring using original Self-Monitoring Scale (SMS) items, and data from two large, nonstudent samples ( Ns = 13,563 and 709). Results indicate that the new acquisitive (six-item) and protective (seven-item) self-monitoring scales are reliable, unbiased in terms of gender and age, and demonstrate theoretically consistent relations to measures of personality traits and cognitive ability. Additionally, by virtue of using original SMS items, previously collected responses can be reanalyzed in accordance with the alternative bivariate model. Recommendations for the reanalysis of archival SMS data, as well as directions for future research, are provided.

Protective self-presentation style: association with disordered eating and anorexia nervosa mediated by sociocultural attitudes towards appearance

OBJECTIVE

We tested the hypothesis that a protective self-presentation style (Lennox and Wolfe, 1984) is associated with eating pathology and anorexia nervosa (AN) and that this association is mediated by sociocultural attitudes towards appearance emphasizing the thin ideal.

METHOD

We compared the protective-presentation style of women with AN (N=17), partially recovered women (N=110), fully recovered women (N=73), and female controls (N=374).

RESULTS

Ill women had a more protective self-presentation style than partially or fully recovered women, who in turn had a more protective self-presentation style than controls. Sociocultural attitudes towards appearance fully mediated the association between protective self-presentation and disordered eating.

CONCLUSIONS

Protective self-presentation may therefore be a risk factor for AN and/or a prognostic factor. Implications for therapy and prevention are discussed.

The Psychometric Properties of the Revised Self-Monitoring Scale (RSMS) and the Concern for Appropriateness Scale (CAS) in Hebrew

We examined the factor structure, reliability, and construct validity of a Hebrew translation of Lennox and Wolfe’s Revised Self-Monitoring Scale (RSMS) and Concern for Appropriateness Scale (CAS) in a large Israeli population sample. A total of 1,294 individuals (1,010 females and 284 males), divided into two samples, completed the RSMS, the CAS, the Tridimensional Personality Questionnaire Harm Avoidance Scale, and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. With the exception of RSMS Item 12, the total and subscale structure of the English versions of the scales was replicated in both samples. Internal consistencies compared very favorably with those of the original scales. The CAS and the RSMS were moderately correlated yet appeared to be distinct, correlating as expected in opposite directions with harm avoidance and self-esteem. Confirmatory factor analysis justified the use of the RSMS and the CAS as separate scales with two subscales in each. Whereas the fit of our data to the RSMS was very good, the fit to the CAS was far less satisfactory, apparently because items tended to load onto both subscales. The Hebrew translation of the RSMS, and, to a lesser extent, that of the CAS, appear to be psychometrically sound instruments.

The Effects of Sex, Gender Role, and Personality Traits on Leader Emergence

This study investigated the effects of sex, gender roles, and personality (self-monitoring, self-efficacy, and dominance) on leader emergence in Turkish university students. Two hundred and nineteen business students filled in personality and gender role inventories, and 60 of them were selected by personality and sex to join in a 4-person leaderless group discussion involving a gender-neutral task. At the completion of the sessions, they evaluated each other on leadership perception and preferences. Results showed that the only personality trait predicting leader emergence in Turkish students was self-monitoring. Differing from studies conducted in Western cultures, dominance, self-efficacy, sex, and gender role orientation were not found to predict emergent group leaders. This difference is explained within the context of Turkey's feminine and collectivist cultural characteristics. The study supports the idea that North American research findings on group leadership perceptions should be tested in other cultures. This issue is especially important for global organizations functioning worldwide.

What's good for the goose may not be as good for the gander: the benefits of self-monitoring for men and women in task groups and dyadic conflicts

The authors posit that women can rely on self-monitoring to overcome negative gender stereotypes in certain performance contexts. In a study of mixed-sex task groups, the authors found that female group members who were high self-monitors were considered more influential and more valuable contributors than women who were low self-monitors. Men benefited relatively less from self-monitoring behavior. In an experimental study of dyadic negotiations, the authors found that women who were high self-monitors performed better than women who were low self-monitors, particularly when they were negotiating over a fixed pool of resources, whereas men did not benefit as much from self-monitoring. Further analyses suggest that high self-monitoring women altered their behavior in these negotiations--when their partner behaved assertively, they increased their level of assertiveness, whereas men and low self-monitoring women did not alter their behavior.

Personality and leadership: a qualitative and quantitative review

This article provides a qualitative review of the trait perspective in leadership research, followed by a meta-analysis. The authors used the five-factor model as an organizing framework and meta-analyzed 222 correlations from 73 samples. Overall, the correlations with leadership were Neuroticism = -.24, Extraversion = .31, Openness to Experience = .24, Agreeableness = .08, and Conscientiousness = .28. Results indicated that the relations of Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness to Experience, and Conscientiousness with leadership generalized in that more than 90% of the individual correlations were greater than 0. Extraversion was the most consistent correlate of leadership across study settings and leadership criteria (leader emergence and leadership effectiveness). Overall, the five-factor model had a multiple correlation of .48 with leadership, indicating strong support for the leader trait perspective when traits are organized according to the five-factor model.

Self-monitoring personality at work: a meta-analytic investigation of construct validity

The validity of self-monitoring personality in organizational settings was examined. Meta-analyses were conducted (136 samples; total N = 23,191) investigating the relationship between self-monitoring personality and work-related variables, as well as the reliability of various self-monitoring measures. Results suggest that self-monitoring has relevance for understanding many organizational concerns, including job performance and leadership emergence. Sample-weighted mean differences favoring male respondents were also noted, suggesting that the sex-related effects for self-monitoring may partially explain noted disparities between men and women at higher organizational levels (i.e., the glass ceiling). Theory building and additional research are needed to better understand the construct-related inferences about self-monitoring personality, especially in terms of the performance, leadership, and attitudes of those at top organizational levels.

Self-monitoring: appraisal and reappraisal

Theory and research on self-monitoring have accumulated into a sizable literature on the impact of variation in the extent to which people cultivate public appearances in diverse domains of social functioning. Yet self-monitoring and its measure, the Self-Monitoring Scale, are surrounded by controversy generated by conflicting answers to the critical question, Is self-monitoring a unitary phenomenon? A primary source of answers to this question has been largely neglected--the Self-Monitoring Scale's relations with external criteria. We propose a quantitative method to examine the self-monitoring literature and thereby address major issues of the controversy. Application of this method reveals that, with important exceptions, a wide range of external criteria tap a dimension directly measured by the Self-Monitoring Scale. We discuss what this appraisal reveals about with self-monitoring is and is not.

Sex, Task, and Behavioral Flexibility Effects on Leadership Perceptions

The effects of sex and behavioral flexibility on leader perceptions were examined in small groups performing under two task conditions. We predicted, based on theory and previous empirical research, that leadership perceptions would be higher for: (1) persons higher in three indicators of behavioral flexibility (self-monitoring, self-reported behavioral capabilities, and androgyny), (2) males in general, and (3) tasks that were sex-congruent. Results showed significant, strong support for behavioral flexibility and sex effects and weak support for the effects of sex-congruent tasks. Exploratory analyses showed that perceived target capabilities mediated the effects of sex and behavioral flexibility. The discussion is organized around a theoretical model which suggests that target behavior and sex-based cues leading to leader categorization are in part mediated by inferred target capabilities. These capabilities show parallels to leadership-relevant traits such as masculinity, dominance, extroversion, and adjustment, identified in early leadership research. Copyright 1998 Academic Press.