In- and out-groups across cultures: Identities and perceived group values

Distinguishing and privileging one's in-groups from out-groups appears to be a human universal, though theories about why and how this happens diverge. This paper contributes to understanding these processes by adding cross-cultural, ecological validity to a demographic understanding of a) which in- and out-groups are prevalent in four distinct societies and b) discernible patterns in the values that members of these groups are perceived to hold. Our results suggest that respondents see in-groups, often their family, as conventionally moral (caring for others) across societies, while typically perceiving a range of disparate out-groups as hedonistic and self-serving. We find both commonalities and distinctions in third-order beliefs ('what I believe they believe') across four samples, yet all highlight one axis of Schwartz's value scheme capturing conventional morality as central for feelings of affiliation with in-groups and 'othering' for out-groups.

Patterns of Implicit and Explicit Stereotypes III: Long-Term Change in Gender Stereotypes

Gender stereotypes are widely shared “collective representations” that link gender groups (e.g., male/female) with roles or attributes (e.g., career/family, science/arts). Such collective stereotypes, especially implicit stereotypes, are assumed to be so deeply embedded in society that they are resistant to change. Yet over the past several decades, shifts in real-world gender roles suggest the possibility that gender stereotypes may also have changed alongside such shifts. The current project tests the patterns of recent gender stereotype change using a decade (2007–2018) of continuously collected data from 1.4 million implicit and explicit tests of gender stereotypes (male-science/female-arts, male-career/female-family). Time series analyses revealed that, over just 10 years, both implicit and explicit male-science/female-arts and male-career/female-family stereotypes have shifted toward neutrality, weakening by 13%–19%. Furthermore, these trends were observed across nearly all demographic groups and in all geographic regions of the United States and several other countries, indicating worldwide shifts in collective implicit and explicit gender stereotypes.