1
|
Stefanova EP, Sierra E, Fernández A, Quesada-Canales O, Paz-Sánchez Y, Colom-Rivero A, Espinosa de los Monteros A, Herráez P, Domínguez L, Bezos J, Pérez-Sancho M, Moreno I, Risalde MA, Andrada M. Detection of caprine paratuberculosis (Johne's disease) in pre- and post-vaccinated herds: morphological diagnosis, lesion grading, and bacterial identification. Front Vet Sci 2024; 11:1395928. [PMID: 39144076 PMCID: PMC11322454 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2024.1395928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2024] [Accepted: 07/15/2024] [Indexed: 08/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Samples from the mesenteric lymph nodes (MS LNs) and ileocecal valves (ICV) of 105 goats, comprising 61 non-vaccinated and 44 vaccinated against Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP), were collected at slaughter from a farm with a confirmed history of paratuberculosis (PTB). These goats had subclinical infections. PTB-compatible lesions in the MS LNs, ICV lamina propria (LP), and Peyer's patches (PPs) were graded separately. Furthermore, the load of acid-fast bacilli was quantified using Ziehl-Neelsen staining (ZN), MAP antigens by immunohistochemistry (IHC), and MAP DNA by PCR targeting the IS900 sequence. Gross PTB-compatible lesions were found in 39% of the goats, with 31.72% vaccinated (V) and 68.29% non-vaccinated (nV). Histopathological lesions induced MAP were observed in 58% of the animals, with 36.07% vaccinated and 63.93% non-vaccinated. The inclusion of histopathology as a diagnostic tool led to a 28% increase in diagnosed cases in MS LNs and 86.05% in ICV. Grade IV granulomas with central mineralization and necrosis were the most common lesions in MS LNs. In the ICV, mild granulomatous enteritis with multifocal foci of epithelioid macrophages was predominant, occurring more frequently in the PPs than in the LP. Furthermore, statistical differences in the presence of histopathological lesions between vaccinated and non-vaccinated goats were noted in MS LNs, ICV LPs, and ICV PPs. Non-vaccinated animals showed higher positivity rates in ZN, IHC, and PCR tests, underscoring the benefits of anti-MAP vaccination in reducing PTB lesions and bacterial load in target organs. Our findings emphasize the necessity of integrating gross and histopathological assessments with various laboratory techniques for accurate morphological and etiological diagnosis of PTB in both vaccinated and non-vaccinated goats with subclinical disease. However, further studies are required to refine sampling protocols for subclinical PTB in goats to enhance the consistency of diagnostic tools.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elena Plamenova Stefanova
- Division of Animal Histology and Pathology, Veterinary School, Institute of Animal Health and Food Safety (IUSA), University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Arucas, Spain
- Departament of Morphology, Veterinary School, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Arucas, Spain
| | - Eva Sierra
- Division of Animal Histology and Pathology, Veterinary School, Institute of Animal Health and Food Safety (IUSA), University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Arucas, Spain
- Departament of Morphology, Veterinary School, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Arucas, Spain
| | - Antonio Fernández
- Division of Animal Histology and Pathology, Veterinary School, Institute of Animal Health and Food Safety (IUSA), University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Arucas, Spain
- Departament of Morphology, Veterinary School, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Arucas, Spain
| | - Oscar Quesada-Canales
- Division of Animal Histology and Pathology, Veterinary School, Institute of Animal Health and Food Safety (IUSA), University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Arucas, Spain
- Departament of Morphology, Veterinary School, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Arucas, Spain
| | - Yania Paz-Sánchez
- Division of Animal Histology and Pathology, Veterinary School, Institute of Animal Health and Food Safety (IUSA), University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Arucas, Spain
| | - Ana Colom-Rivero
- Division of Animal Histology and Pathology, Veterinary School, Institute of Animal Health and Food Safety (IUSA), University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Arucas, Spain
| | - Antonio Espinosa de los Monteros
- Division of Animal Histology and Pathology, Veterinary School, Institute of Animal Health and Food Safety (IUSA), University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Arucas, Spain
- Departament of Morphology, Veterinary School, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Arucas, Spain
| | - Pedro Herráez
- Division of Animal Histology and Pathology, Veterinary School, Institute of Animal Health and Food Safety (IUSA), University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Arucas, Spain
- Departament of Morphology, Veterinary School, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Arucas, Spain
| | - Lucas Domínguez
- VISAVET Health Surveillance Centre, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Javier Bezos
- VISAVET Health Surveillance Centre, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Marta Pérez-Sancho
- VISAVET Health Surveillance Centre, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Inmaculada Moreno
- Servicio de Inmunología Microbiana, Centro Nacional de Microbiología, Instituto de Investigación Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - María A. Risalde
- Departamento de Anatomía y Anatomía Patológica Comparadas y Toxicología, Grupo de Investigación GISAZ, UIC Zoonosis y Enfermedades Emergentes ENZOEM, Universidad de Córdoba, Campus de Rabanales, Edificio Sanidad Animal, Córdoba, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto de Salud Carlos III (CIBERINFEC, ISCIII), Madrid, Spain
| | - Marisa Andrada
- Division of Animal Histology and Pathology, Veterinary School, Institute of Animal Health and Food Safety (IUSA), University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Arucas, Spain
- Departament of Morphology, Veterinary School, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Arucas, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Ingratta GG, Stempler A, Fernández B, Colavecchia SB, Jolly A, Minatel L, Paolicchi FA, Mundo SL. Early-stage findings in an experimental calf model infected with Argentinean isolates of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2023; 259:110595. [PMID: 37058952 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2023.110595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2023] [Revised: 03/30/2023] [Accepted: 04/10/2023] [Indexed: 04/16/2023]
Abstract
Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) is an important pathogen that causes granulomatous enteritis known as Johne's disease or paratuberculosis (PTB). In this study an experimental model of calves infected with Argentinean isolates of MAP for 180 days was used to provide more data of the early PTB stages. Calves were challenged by oral route with MAP strain IS900-RFLPA (MA; n = 3), MAP strain IS900-RFLPC (MC; n = 2) or mock infected (MI; n = 2), and response to infection was evaluated through peripheral cytokine expression, MAP tissue distribution and histopathological early-stage findings. Specific and varied levels of IFN-γ were only detected at 80 days post-infection in infected calves. These data indicate that specific IFN-γ is not a useful indicator for early detection of MAP infection in our calf model. At 110 days post-infection, TNF-α expression was higher than IL-10 in 4 of the 5 infected animals and a significant decrease of TNF-α expression was detected in infected vs. non-infected calves. All calves challenged were identified as infected by mesenteric lymph node tissue culture and real time IS900 PCR. In addition, for lymph nodes samples, the agreement between these techniques was almost perfect (κ = 0.86). Colonization of tissues and levels of tissue infection varied between individuals. Evidence of early MAP dissemination to extraintestinal tissues such as the liver was detected by culture in one animal (MAP strain IS900-RFLPA). In both groups microgranulomatous lesions were observed predominantly in the lymph nodes, with giant cells present only in the MA group. In summary, the findings described herein may indicate that local MAP strains induced specific immune responses with particularities that could suggest differences in their biological behavior. Further studies should be carried out in order to obtain an in-depth understanding of the influence of MAP strains in host-pathogen interactions and the outcome of disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Giselle Gabriela Ingratta
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Cátedra de Inmunología, Av. Chorroarín 280, C1427CWO Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Ana Stempler
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Cátedra de Inmunología, Av. Chorroarín 280, C1427CWO Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Bárbara Fernández
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Cátedra de Inmunología, Av. Chorroarín 280, C1427CWO Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina; CONICET-Universidad de Buenos Aires, Instituto de Investigaciones en Producción Animal (INPA), Av. Chorroarín 280, C1427CWO Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina; Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Instituto de Investigación y Tecnología en Reproducción Animal (INITRA), Av. Chorroarín 280, C1427CWO Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| | - Silvia Beatriz Colavecchia
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Cátedra de Inmunología, Av. Chorroarín 280, C1427CWO Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Ana Jolly
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Cátedra de Inmunología, Av. Chorroarín 280, C1427CWO Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Leonardo Minatel
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Cátedra de Patología, Av. San Martín 5285, C1417DSM Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Fernando Alberto Paolicchi
- Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA), Estación Experimental Agropecuaria Balcarce, Laboratorio de Bacteriología, Ruta 226, Km 73.5, Balcarce B7620BEN, Provincia de Buenos Aires, Argentina; Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata, Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias, Departamento de Producción Animal, Ruta 226, Km 73.5, Balcarce B7620BEN, Provincia de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Silvia Leonor Mundo
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Cátedra de Inmunología, Av. Chorroarín 280, C1427CWO Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina; CONICET-Universidad de Buenos Aires, Instituto de Investigaciones en Producción Animal (INPA), Av. Chorroarín 280, C1427CWO Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina; Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Instituto de Investigación y Tecnología en Reproducción Animal (INITRA), Av. Chorroarín 280, C1427CWO Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Wherry TLT, Heggen M, Shircliff AL, Mooyottu S, Stabel JR. Stage of infection with Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis impacts expression of Rab5, Rab7, and CYP27B1 in macrophages within the ileum of naturally infected cows. Front Vet Sci 2023; 10:1117591. [PMID: 36816182 PMCID: PMC9937430 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2023.1117591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2022] [Accepted: 01/16/2023] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Macrophages are the preferential target of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP), the etiologic agent of ruminant paratuberculosis. Uptake of pathogens by intestinal macrophages results in their trafficking through endosomal compartments, ultimately leading to fusion with an acidic lysosome to destroy the pathogen. MAP possesses virulence factors which disrupt these endosomal pathways. Additionally, levels of serum vitamin D3 have proven relevant to host immunity. Dynamics of endosomal trafficking and vitamin D3 metabolism have been largely unexplored in bovine paratuberculosis. Methods This study aimed to characterize expression of early and late endosomal markers Rab5 and Rab7, respectively, within CD68+ macrophages in frozen mid-ileum sections harvested from cows at different stages of natural paratuberculosis infection. Additionally, factors of vitamin D3 signaling and metabolism were characterized through expression of vitamin D3 activating enzyme 1α-hydroxylase (CYP27B1), vitamin D3 inactivating enzyme 24-hydroxylase (CYP24A1), and vitamin D3 receptor (VDR) within CD68+ ileal macrophages. Results and discussion Cows with clinical paratuberculosis had significantly greater macrophage and MAP burden overall, as well as intracellular MAP. Total expression of Rab5 within macrophages was reduced in clinical cows; however, Rab5 and MAP colocalization was significantly greater in this group. Intracellular Rab7 colocalization with MAP was not detected in subclinical or Johne's Disease negative (JD-) control cows but was present in clinical cows. Additionally, macrophage CYP27B1 expression was significantly reduced in clinical cows. Taken together, the results from this study show disparate patterns of expression for key mediators in intracellular MAP trafficking and vitamin D metabolism for cows at different stages of paratuberculosis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Taylor L. T. Wherry
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States,United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service (USDA-ARS), National Animal Disease Center, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Mark Heggen
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, College of Agricultural and Life Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Adrienne L. Shircliff
- United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service (USDA-ARS), National Animal Disease Center, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Shankumar Mooyottu
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States
| | - Judith R. Stabel
- United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service (USDA-ARS), National Animal Disease Center, Ames, IA, United States,*Correspondence: Judith R. Stabel ✉
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Stabel JR, Bannantine JP, Humphrey S. B cell phenotypes and maturation states in cows naturally infected with Mycobacterium avium subsp. Paratuberculosis. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0278313. [PMID: 36477266 PMCID: PMC9728927 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0278313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2022] [Accepted: 11/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Little is known about the role that B cells play in immune responses to infection with the intracellular pathogen, Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP). Traditionally, the role of B cells has been constrained to their function as antibody-producing cells, however, antibodies are not thought to play a protective role in mycobacterial infections. The present study was designed to characterize B cell subpopulations as well as activation/maturation states in cattle with paratuberculosis. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were isolated from noninfected control cows (n = 8); as well cattle naturally infected with MAP in the subclinical (n = 8) and clinical (n = 7) stage of infection and stimulated with MAP antigen for 6 days. MAP infection resulted in greater numbers of total B cells for clinical cows compared to control noninfected cows. The major subpopulation in freshly isolated PBMCs in clinical cows was B-1a B cells, but this shifted to a composite of both B-1a and B-2 B cells upon stimulation of PBMCs with either MAP antigen or pokeweed mitogen, with higher numbers of B-2 B cells. Early B cells were observed to predominate the population of B cells in PBMCs, with lesser populations of germinal B cells, memory B cells and plasma cells. These subpopulations were elevated in clinical cows upon stimulation of PBMCs with MAP antigen, except for plasma cells which were lower compared to control noninfected cows. Increased numbers of B cells in clinical cows aligned with higher expression of B cell markers such as MAPK1/3, BTG1, Bcl2, CD79A and SWAP70, depending upon in vitro stimulation with either mitogen or antigen. This would indicate that the B cells were capable of activation but were anti-apoptotic in nature. The shift to B-2 B cells in the periphery of clinical cows seems to be indicative of an expansion of memory B cells, rather than plasma cells. This may be a last attempt by the host to control the rampant inflammatory state associated with advanced clinical disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J. R. Stabel
- Infectious Bacterial Diseases of Livestock Research Unit, USDA-ARS, National Animal Disease Center, Ames, IA, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - J. P. Bannantine
- Infectious Bacterial Diseases of Livestock Research Unit, USDA-ARS, National Animal Disease Center, Ames, IA, United States of America
| | - S. Humphrey
- Microscopy Services Department, USDA-ARS, National Animal Disease Center, Ames, IA, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Jenvey CJ, Shircliff AL, Obando Marrero E, Stabel JR. Prediction of Johne's disease state based on quantification of T cell markers and their interaction with macrophages in the bovine intestine. Vet Res 2021; 52:55. [PMID: 33849661 PMCID: PMC8042692 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-021-00925-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2020] [Accepted: 03/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Cell-mediated immune responses to Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) are regulated by various types of T lymphocytes. The aim of this study was to quantitate T cell subsets in the mid-ileum of cows naturally infected with MAP to identify differences during different stages of infection, and to determine whether these subsets could be used as predictors of disease state. Immunofluorescent labeling of T cell subsets and macrophages was performed on frozen mid-ileal tissue sections archived from naturally infected dairy cows in either subclinical or clinical disease status, and noninfected control cows. Comprehensive IF staining for CD4, CD8α, TcR1-N24 (gamma delta), FoxP3, CXCR3 and CCR9 served to define T cell subsets and was correlated with macrophages present. Clinically affected cows demonstrated significantly higher numbers of CXCR3+ (Th1-type) and CCR9+ (total small intestinal lymphocytes) cells at the site of infection compared to the subclinical cows and noninfected controls. Further, predictive modeling indicated a significant interaction between CXCR3+ and AM3K+ (macrophages) cells, suggesting that progression to clinical disease state aligns with increased numbers of these cell types at the site of infection. The ability to predict disease state with this model was improved from previous modeling using immunofluorescent macrophage data. Predictive modelling indicated an interaction between CXCR3+ and AM3K+ cells, which could more sensitively detect subclinical cows compared to clinical cows. It may be possible to use this knowledge to improve and develop an assay to detect subclinically infected animals with more confidence during the early stages of the disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Caitlin J Jenvey
- USDA-Agricultural Research Service (ARS), National Animal Disease Center, Ames, IA, USA.,Department of Animal, Plant and Soil Sciences, AgriBio Centre for AgriBioscience, La Trobe University, Bundoora, VIC, Australia
| | - Adrienne L Shircliff
- USDA-Agricultural Research Service (ARS), National Animal Disease Center, Ames, IA, USA
| | - Elsa Obando Marrero
- USDA-Agricultural Research Service (ARS), National Animal Disease Center, Ames, IA, USA
| | - Judith R Stabel
- USDA-Agricultural Research Service (ARS), National Animal Disease Center, Ames, IA, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Methods in isolation and characterization of bovine monocytes and macrophages. Methods 2020; 186:22-41. [PMID: 32622986 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymeth.2020.06.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2020] [Revised: 05/28/2020] [Accepted: 06/23/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Monocytes and macrophages belong to the mononuclear phagocyte system and play important roles in both physiological and pathological processes. The cells belonging to the monocyte/macrophage system are structurally and functionally heterogeneous. Several subsets of monocytes have been previously identified in mammalian blood, generating different subpopulations of macrophages in tissues. Although their distribution and phenotype are similar to their human counterpart, bovine monocytes and macrophages feature differences in both functions and purification procedures. The specific roles that monocytes and macrophages fulfil in several important diseases of bovine species, including among the others tuberculosis and paratuberculosis, brucellosis or the disease related to peripartum, remain still partially elusive. The purpose of this review is to discuss the current knowledge of bovine monocytes and macrophages. We will describe methods for their purification and characterization of their major functions, including chemotaxis, phagocytosis and killing, oxidative burst, apoptosis and necrosis. An overview of the flow cytometry and morphological procedures, including cytology, histology and immunohistochemistry, that are currently utilized to describe monocyte and macrophage main populations and functions is presented as well.
Collapse
|
7
|
Influence of Colostrum and Vitamins A, D 3, and E on Early Intestinal Colonization of Neonatal Holstein Calves Infected with Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis. Vet Sci 2019; 6:vetsci6040093. [PMID: 31756892 PMCID: PMC6958420 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci6040093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2019] [Revised: 11/14/2019] [Accepted: 11/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Exposure of neonates to Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) via infected dams is the primary mode of transmission of Johne’s disease. Little is known about the impacts of feeding colostrum and supplemental vitamins on the gut microbiome in calves exposed to MAP. In the present study, calves were assigned at birth to one of six treatment groups: (1) Colostrum deprived (CD), no vitamins; (2) colostrum replacer (CR), no vitamins; (3) CR, vitamin A; (4) CR, vitamin D3; (5) CR, vitamin E; (6) CR, vitamins A, D3, E, with five calves per treatment in a 14-day study. All calves were orally inoculated with MAP on days 1 and 3 of the study. Differences due to vitamin supplementation were not significant but treatment groups CR-A, CR-E, and CR-ADE had higher numbers of MAP-positive tissues overall. Shannon diversity indices demonstrated regional differences in microbial communities, primarily Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, and Firmicutes, between the ileum, cecum, and spiral colon of all calves. CD calves exhibited increased richness compared with CR calves in the cecum and spiral colon and harbored increased Proteobacteria and decreased Bacteroidetes in the mucosa compared with the lumen for all three tissues. Overall, supplementation with vitamins did not appear to influence gut microbiome or impact MAP infection. Feeding of colostrum influenced gut microbiome and resulted in fewer incidences of dysbiosis.
Collapse
|