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Kenyon C, Beebe A, Easley K, Jayanthi N, Bowers R. Feasibility of the pitch efficiency rating: A novel tool for systematic assessment of pitching mechanics in developing throwing athletes. PM R 2024; 16:339-346. [PMID: 38551303 DOI: 10.1002/pmrj.13178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2023] [Revised: 02/27/2024] [Accepted: 03/04/2024] [Indexed: 04/13/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Injuries in younger baseball athletes continue to increase despite work characterizing risk factors. Three-dimensional (3D) motion capture may identify suboptimal pitching mechanics that predispose an athlete to injury, but 3D-motion analysis is often inaccessible. Thus, there is a gap between the current biomechanics literature and its practical application in young athletes. The current study aims to assess the reliability of the pitch efficiency rating (PER) as a systematic tool to evaluate throwing mechanics in developing baseball pitchers. OBJECTIVE To determine the feasibility of application and reliability of a novel, scientifically informed tool (PER) for the assessment of pitching mechanics. DESIGN Reliability study using Bland-Altman methods for assessing agreement between two raters. SETTING Academic medical center through community outreach. PARTICIPANTS Pitching mechanics were assessed and rated with the PER for 40 athletes (26 high school, 14 Division III), average age 19.0 years old (range 15.3-23.7 years old). INTERVENTIONS N/A. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Interrater and intrarater reliability as calculated by intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC). RESULTS For initial readings comparing interrater reliability between Rater 1 and Rater 2, the ICC was calculated at 0.80 (95% confidence interval [CI] 0.66-0.89) and 0.76 (95% CI 0.60-0.86) for the second set of ratings. Regarding intrarater reliability across reads, ICC was found to be 0.63 (95% CI 0.43-0.79) for Rater 1, and 0.91 for Rater 2 (95% CI 0.85-0.95). CONCLUSIONS The present study introduces the PER as a potential tool for evaluating pitching mechanics. However, the intrarater reliability of the PER did not meet preestablished criteria in one of the two pilot raters. Further study is needed to continue to assess the reliability of the tool across diverse demographics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles Kenyon
- Department of Orthopaedics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
- Emory Sports Medicine Center, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Alex Beebe
- Diamond Performance and Rehab, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Kirk Easley
- Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Neeru Jayanthi
- Department of Orthopaedics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
- Emory Sports Medicine Center, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Robert Bowers
- Department of Orthopaedics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
- Emory Sports Medicine Center, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
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Manzi JE, Dowling B, Wang Z, Sudah SY, Quan T, Moran J, McElheny KL, Carr JB, Gulotta LV, Dines JS. Forearm Pronation at Foot Contact: A Biomechanical Motion-Capture Analysis in High School and Professional Pitchers. Orthop J Sports Med 2023; 11:23259671221145233. [PMID: 37123995 PMCID: PMC10134138 DOI: 10.1177/23259671221145233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2022] [Accepted: 09/26/2022] [Indexed: 05/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Background It has previously been speculated that baseball pitchers who display excessive forearm pronation at foot contact (FC) have a higher propensity toward ulnar collateral ligament injury and subsequent surgery. Purpose To evaluate the association between degree of forearm pronation/supination at FC and throwing arm kinetics in high school and professional pitchers, at both the individual (intrapitcher) and the group (interpitcher) level. Study Design Descriptive laboratory study. Methods High school (n = 41) and professional (n = 196) pitchers threw 8 to 12 fastballs while being assessed with a 3-dimensional motion-capture system (480 Hz). Pitchers at each playing level were divided into a supination or pronation subgroup depending on degree of forearm pronation at FC. Regression models were built to observe the relationship between forearm pronation at FC and kinetic and kinematic parameters of interest. Results At both the individual and the group level of high school and professional pitchers, there was no significant correlation between forearm pronation at FC and elbow varus torque (P min = .21). For every 10° increase in forearm pronation at FC in the individual high school pitcher, elbow flexion at FC decreased by 5°, whereas maximum elbow extension velocity was achieved 0.6% later in the pitch. In addition, elbow medial force increased by 4.1 N and elbow varus torque increased by 0.8 N·m for every 10° increase in forearm supination at FC. For every 10° increase in forearm supination in the individual professional pitcher, ball velocity increased by 0.5 m/s, shoulder external rotation at FC decreased by 11°, and elbow medial force decreased by 5.5 N. Conclusion Supination- or pronation-predominant forearm motion during the pitch did not significantly differ between playing levels. Excessive forearm pronation at FC was not a significant risk factor for increased throwing arm kinetics for high school or professional pitchers. There was a weak positive association between forearm supination at FC and elbow varus torque in the individual high school pitcher. Ultimately, coaches and pitchers may be better served by redirecting their focus to other mechanical aspects of the pitch that may have stronger associations with injury risk implications as well as performance.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Brittany Dowling
- Sports Performance Center, Midwest Orthopaedics at Rush, Oak Brook, Illinois, USA
| | | | - Suleiman Y. Sudah
- Department of Orthopedics, Monmouth Medical Center, Long Branch, New Jersey, USA
| | - Theodore Quan
- Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Jay Moran
- The George Washington School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington DC, USA
| | - Kathryn L. McElheny
- Sports Medicine Institute, Hospital for Special Surgery, New York, New York, USA
| | - James B. Carr
- Sports Medicine Institute, Hospital for Special Surgery Florida, West Palm Beach, Florida, USA
| | - Lawrence V. Gulotta
- Sports Medicine Institute, Hospital for Special Surgery, New York, New York, USA
| | - Joshua S. Dines
- Sports Medicine Institute, Hospital for Special Surgery, New York, New York, USA
- Joshua S. Dines, MD, Hospital for Special Surgery, HSS Sports Medicine Institute West Side, 610 West 58th Street, New York, NY 10019, USA ()
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Tamura A, Saito M. Muscle Activity Characteristics of the Pronator Teres during Throwing in Baseball Pitchers: A Pilot Study. Healthcare (Basel) 2023; 11:healthcare11040618. [PMID: 36833152 PMCID: PMC9957271 DOI: 10.3390/healthcare11040618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2023] [Revised: 02/08/2023] [Accepted: 02/16/2023] [Indexed: 02/22/2023] Open
Abstract
The pronator teres muscle is a major dynamic stabilizer of elbow valgus stress during throwing. This study aims to investigate pronator teres muscle activation during breaking ball pitching in baseball pitchers. Twelve male college baseball players with more than eight years of baseball experience were included in this study. A wireless surface electromyography (EMG) system was used to measure the activation of the forearm muscles and record EMG data during fastball and curveball pitching. Peak pronator teres muscle activation during curveball pitching was greater than that during fastball pitching (p = 0.03). There was no difference in the muscle activation of the other forearm muscles (p > 0.05). These results indicate that increased muscle activity in the pronator teres may contribute to stiffness and induce pronator teres syndrome or medial elbow injuries related to the overuse of the pronator teres, especially during curveball pitching. Controlling curveball throws contributes to player coaching and conditioning for the prevention of elbow joint disorders and pronator teres syndrome.
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4
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Diffendaffer AZ, Bagwell MS, Fleisig GS, Yanagita Y, Stewart M, Cain EL, Dugas JR, Wilk KE. The Clinician's Guide to Baseball Pitching Biomechanics. Sports Health 2022; 15:274-281. [PMID: 35465789 PMCID: PMC9950989 DOI: 10.1177/19417381221078537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
CONTEXT Improper baseball pitching biomechanics are associated with increased stresses on the throwing elbow and shoulder as well as an increased risk of injury. EVIDENCE ACQUISITION Previous studies quantifying pitching kinematics and kinetics were reviewed. STUDY DESIGN Clinical review. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE Level 5. RESULTS At the instant of lead foot contact, the elbow should be flexed approximately 90° with the shoulder at about 90° abduction, 20° horizontal abduction, and 45° external rotation. The stride length should be about 85% of the pitcher's height with the lead foot in a slightly closed position. The pelvis should be rotated slightly open toward home plate with the upper torso in line with the pitching direction. Improper shoulder external rotation at foot contact is associated with increased elbow and shoulder torques and forces and may be corrected by changing the stride length and/or arm path. From foot contact to maximum shoulder external rotation to ball release, the pitcher should demonstrate a kinematic chain of lead knee extension, pelvis rotation, upper trunk rotation, elbow extension, and shoulder internal rotation. The lead knee should be flexed about 45° at foot contact and 30° at ball release. Corrective strategies for insufficient knee extension may involve technical issues (stride length, lead foot position, lead foot orientation) and/or strength and conditioning of the lower body. Improper pelvis and upper trunk rotation often indicate the need for core strength and flexibility. Maximum shoulder external rotation should be about 170°. Insufficient external rotation leads to low shoulder internal rotation velocity and low ball velocity. Deviation from 90° abduction decreases the ability to achieve maximum external rotation, increases elbow torque, and decreases the dynamic stability in the glenohumeral joint. CONCLUSION Improved pitching biomechanics can increase performance and reduce risk of injury. SORT Level C.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Glenn S. Fleisig
- American Sports Medicine Institute,
Birmingham, Alabama,Glenn S. Fleisig, PhD,
American Sports Medicine Institute, 833 St. Vincent’s Drive, Birmingham, AL
35205, USA () (Twitter: @ASMI_INFO)
| | - Yuki Yanagita
- American Sports Medicine Institute,
Birmingham, Alabama
| | - Megan Stewart
- American Sports Medicine Institute,
Birmingham, Alabama
| | - E. Lyle Cain
- American Sports Medicine Institute,
Birmingham, Alabama
| | | | - Kevin E. Wilk
- American Sports Medicine Institute,
Birmingham, Alabama,Champion Sports Medicine, Birmingham,
Alabama
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5
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Lead Foot Progression Angle in Baseball Pitchers: Implications to Ball Velocity and Upper-Extremity Joint Moments. J Appl Biomech 2022; 38:129-135. [DOI: 10.1123/jab.2021-0324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2021] [Revised: 02/18/2022] [Accepted: 02/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The instant of foot contact is an important transition point during the pitch cycle between the linear portion of the pitch, as a pitcher strides down the mound and the rotational portion of the pitch. Understanding the implications of lead foot angle at foot contact is an essential information needed to assist pitching coaches in their work with individual pitchers. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine the association between lead foot progression angle at foot contact and ball velocity, elbow varus moment, and pelvic rotation. Kinematic and kinetic data were collected from 99 collegiate pitchers and analyzed using a random intercept, mixed-effects regression model. Significant associations were found between lead foot progression angle at foot contact and elbow varus moment (P = .004), as well as pelvic rotation throughout the pitching motion (P < .001). The data indicate that increased lead foot internal rotation at foot contact is associated with increases in the elbow varus moment but is not associated with ball velocity. This study provides scientific evidence that the rotational positioning of the lead foot can affect both pelvic motion and upper-extremity joint moments.
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Crotin R, Ramsey D. Grip Strength Measurement in Baseball Pitchers: A Clinical Examination to Indicate Stride Length Inefficiency. Int J Sports Phys Ther 2021; 16:1330-1337. [PMID: 34631254 PMCID: PMC8486408 DOI: 10.26603/001c.28086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2021] [Accepted: 08/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ulnar collateral ligament injuries are rampant in the sport of baseball where kinetic chain impacts, stemming from misappropriation of stride length or changes that occur in competition due to fatigue, have not been evaluated for dynamic elbow stability effects. HYPOTHESIS/PURPOSE To examine the relationship between clinical measures of grip strength and altered stride length in baseball pitchers. It is believed that shorter stride lengths would reduce grip strength in baseball pitchers. STUDY DESIGN Crossover Study Design. METHODS A total of 19 uninjured pitchers (15 collegiate and 4 high school) (age 18.63 ± 1.67 years, height 1.84 ± 0.054 m, mass 82.14 ± 0.054 kg) threw two simulated 80-pitch games at ±25% of their desired stride length recorded by motion capture with two force plates and a radar gun to track each throw. A handheld grip dynamometer was used to record the mean change in grip strength after games from baseline measures. Pairwise comparisons at baseline and post-game denoted grip strength changes and dominant grip strength offsets for stride length conditions. RESULTS Subjects with shorter stride lengths revealed a significant decline in grip strength in the dominant arm from baseline (pre-game; 45.1 kg vs. post-game; 43.2 kg, p=0.017, ES=0.28), however all other tests involving dominant grip strength changes and offset analyses were not statistically different for under-stride and over-stride length conditions. CONCLUSIONS Clinical evaluation of grip strength has the potential to identify altered lower body mechanics and may be considered as a safe and effective monitoring strategy to integrate with motion capture in determining optimal stride lengths for baseball pitchers. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE Level 3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan Crotin
- ArmCare.com; Department of Exercise Science, School of Public Health and Health Professions, University at Buffalo; Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology; Human Performance Laboratories, Department of Kinesiology, Louisiana Tech University
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Mayo BC, Miller A, Patetta MJ, Schwarzman GR, Chen JW, Haden M, Secretov E, Hutchinson MR. Preventing Tommy John Surgery: The Identification of Trends in Pitch Selection, Velocity, and Spin Rate Before Ulnar Collateral Ligament Reconstruction in Major League Baseball Pitchers. Orthop J Sports Med 2021; 9:23259671211012364. [PMID: 34189147 PMCID: PMC8209837 DOI: 10.1177/23259671211012364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2020] [Accepted: 01/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Ulnar collateral ligament (UCL) reconstruction is a common surgery among Major League Baseball (MLB) pitchers that results in a significant number of missed games. Little has been reported regarding game-by-game trends that can identify those on the verge of becoming injured. Purpose: To determine if there is a patterned change in MLB pitchers’ pitch selection, velocity, or spin rate in games leading up to Tommy John surgery that may predict subsequent UCL surgery. Study Design: Case series; Level of evidence, 4. Methods: A retrospective review of MLB pitchers who underwent primary UCL reconstruction between 2009 and 2019 was performed. Pitch characteristics were evaluated on a game-by-game basis for the 15 games leading up to surgery. A Mann-Kendall trend test was used to identify trends in pitch selection, velocity, and spin rate for multiple pitch types. A Kendall τb correlation coefficient was identified, with values closer to 1 or –1 signifying a stronger monotonic trend. Results: A total of 223 MLB pitchers underwent UCL reconstruction in the time period. In the 15 games leading up to surgery, decreases in pitch velocity for 4-seam fastballs (τb = –0.657; P < .001), 2-seam fastballs (τb = –0.429; P = .029), and sliders (τb = –0.524; P = .008) were significantly associated with game number closer to injury. There was a significant positive association in the spin rate for cutters (τb = 0.410; P = .038) and a significant negative association in spin rate for 4-seam fastballs over the course of these 15 games (τb = –0.581; P = .003). In addition, there was a significant positive association in the percentage of curveballs thrown (τb = 0.486; P = .013). Conclusion: The study results suggest that there is a patterned change in certain pitch statistics in MLB pitchers in the games leading up to Tommy John surgery. Although the absolute change from game to game may be small, it may be possible for these trends to be monitored before a player becomes injured, thus reducing the significant burden Tommy John surgery places on these athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Adam Miller
- University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | | | | | - Jeffrey W Chen
- Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Marshall Haden
- University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Erwin Secretov
- University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
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8
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Dowling B, Laughlin WA, Gurchiek RD, Owen CP, Luera MJ, Hansen BR, Fleisig GS. Kinematic and kinetic comparison between American and Japanese collegiate pitchers. J Sci Med Sport 2020; 23:1202-1207. [PMID: 32349922 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsams.2020.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2019] [Revised: 02/27/2020] [Accepted: 04/08/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Understanding the differences in baseball pitching biomechanics between American and Japanese pitchers may help with training and developing these athletes. The purpose of this study was to investigate the kinematic and kinetic differences in collegiate baseball pitchers from United States of American and Japan. DESIGN Controlled laboratory study. METHODS Data were analyzed for 11 American and 11 Japanese collegiate pitchers throwing fastballs using 3D motion capture (480Hz). RESULTS The Americans were heavier (95±7kg vs 81±7kg), taller (189±3cm vs 180±6cm), and had faster ball velocity (39±1m/s vs 35±2m/s). By the end of arm cocking phase, the American pitchers had rotated their shoulder to a greater degree (p=0.021, d=1.5) and at ball release the Japanese had greater knee flexion (p=0.020, d=1.2). American pitchers exhibited greater peak kinetics on the throwing arm; however, when normalized for height and weight only three differences remained. CONCLUSION The differences found between the American and Japanese players could contribute to the increased ball velocity in the American pitchers. Additionally, throwing arm peak kinetics were greater in the American pitchers which may help generate greater ball velocity; however, increased kinetics may also lead to increased risk of injury.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Micheal J Luera
- Applied Neuromuscular Physiology Laboratory, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, USA
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9
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Lawton CD, Lamplot JD, Wright-Chisem JI, James EW, Camp CL, Dines JS. State of the Union on Ulnar Collateral Ligament Reconstruction in 2020: Indications, Techniques, and Outcomes. Curr Rev Musculoskelet Med 2020; 13:338-348. [PMID: 32323247 DOI: 10.1007/s12178-020-09621-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW There has been a marked increase in the number of ulnar collateral ligament reconstructions performed annually and an associated increase in the amount of recent literature published. It is paramount that surgeons remain up to date on the current literature, as modern indications and surgical techniques continue to improve clinical outcomes. RECENT FINDINGS Our understanding of ulnar collateral ligament (UCL) injuries, treatment indications, and surgical techniques for UCL reconstruction continues to evolve. Despite the rapidly increasing amount of published literature on the topic, a clear and concise surgical algorithm is lacking. Studies have suggested a trend towards improved clinical outcomes and decreased complications with various modifications in UCL reconstruction techniques. Current sport-specific outcome studies have reported conflicting results regarding the effect of UCL reconstruction on an athlete's performance upon returning to sport. With the rising incidence of UCL reconstruction and growing media attention, UCL injuries, reconstruction techniques, and return to sport following UCL surgery are timely topics of interest to clinicians and overhead throwing athletes. Several technique modifications have been reported, and these modifications may lead to improved outcomes and lower complication rates. Studies assessing sport-specific outcome measures will be necessary to provide a more critical and informative analysis of outcomes following UCL reconstruction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cort D Lawton
- Sports Medicine and Shoulder Service, Sports Medicine Institute, Hospital for Special Surgery, 535 East 70th Street, New York, NY, 10021, USA.
| | - Joseph D Lamplot
- Sports Medicine and Shoulder Service, Sports Medicine Institute, Hospital for Special Surgery, 535 East 70th Street, New York, NY, 10021, USA
| | - Joshua I Wright-Chisem
- Sports Medicine and Shoulder Service, Sports Medicine Institute, Hospital for Special Surgery, 535 East 70th Street, New York, NY, 10021, USA
| | - Evan W James
- Sports Medicine and Shoulder Service, Sports Medicine Institute, Hospital for Special Surgery, 535 East 70th Street, New York, NY, 10021, USA
| | - Christopher L Camp
- Division of Sports Medicine, Department of Orthopedics, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Joshua S Dines
- Sports Medicine and Shoulder Service, Sports Medicine Institute, Hospital for Special Surgery, 535 East 70th Street, New York, NY, 10021, USA
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10
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW This review examines recent literature regarding analysis of the throwing motion in baseball players and how modern technology may be used to predict or prevent injury. RECENT FINDINGS Proper throwing technique is vitally important to prevent injury and it is easier to correct poor mechanics prior to foot strike. Recent findings suggest that the inverted-W position may not lead to an increased risk of injury, but incorrect trunk or pelvis rotation does. Three-dimensional motion analysis in a laboratory setting is most commonly used to evaluate the throwing motion, but it does not allow for assessment in real game scenarios. Wearable monitors allow for this and have proven to reliably assess pitching workload, kinematics, and kinetics. Injuries in youth baseball pitchers have increased along with the trend towards more single sport specialization. To prevent injury, assessment of a pitcher's throwing motion should be performed early to prevent development of poor mechanics. Classically, three-dimensional motion analysis has been used to evaluate throwing mechanics and is considered the gold standard. Newer technology, such as wearable monitors, may provide an alternative and allow for assessment during actual competition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Christoffer
- Mayo Clinic Sports Medicine, Charlton LC 200 First Street SW, Rochester, MN, 55905, USA.
| | - Heath P Melugin
- Mayo Clinic Sports Medicine, Charlton LC 200 First Street SW, Rochester, MN, 55905, USA
| | - Chad E Cherny
- Mayo Clinic Sports Medicine, Charlton LC 200 First Street SW, Rochester, MN, 55905, USA
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Wang LH, Lo KC, Jou IM, Su FC. Forearm muscle activation, ulnar nerve at the elbow and forearm fatigue in overhand sports. Sports Biomech 2018; 19:792-807. [PMID: 30526373 DOI: 10.1080/14763141.2018.1517820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
This study examined the morphologic changes of the ulnar nerve in different elbow positions by ultrasonography and the effects of fatigue on forearm muscle control during overhand movements. We enrolled 12 tennis players who performed flat serves and 15 baseball pitchers who performed fastball pitching. The motion capture was conducted with 14 reflective markers attached on anatomic landmarks of the participant for tennis serve and baseball pitching data collection. The distance from the nerve to the medial condyle between the tennis players and baseball pitchers showed significant differences (p = 0.006) as the elbow flexed to 90°. The differences are due to the baseball player's repetitive pitching motion while such motion does not apply to tennis player. Activity of the extensor carpi radialis (ECR) during the cocking phase in the tennis serves showed significant differences (p = 0.022) between the nonfatigued and fatigued states; the maximal value was observed in the fatigued state. The significant increase in the ECR activity in the fatigued state might be responsible for grasp-and-release activities and maintaining the wrist joint stability when performing overhand movements. Forearm fatigue influenced their overhand motion ability in accurate ball control, although it did not decrease the ball speed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin-Hwa Wang
- Institute of Physical Education, Health & Leisure Studies, National Cheng Kung University , Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Kuo-Cheng Lo
- Physical Education Office, Kun Shan University , Tainan, Taiwan
| | - I-Ming Jou
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, E-Da Hospital/I-Shou University , Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Fong-Chin Su
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University , Tainan, Taiwan
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