An independent examination of the equivalence of the standard and digital administration formats of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-5th Edition

A new administration format for the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fifth Edition (WISC-V; Wechsler, 2014) was introduced in 2016 on Q-interactive, Pearson's digital platform for test administration and scoring. The current study examined the measurement unit equivalence of the WISC-V standard and digital administration formats using counter-balanced administration of the 10 primary subtests to measure intellectual ability. The results indicated that correlations (r) between standard scores on subtests and composites administered in each format were generally moderate, with mean rs of 0.64 for subtests and 0.71 for composites after correction for attenuation, with the lowest rs for processing speed. Split-plot ANOVAs were conducted to examine within-subjects main effects for administration format and order and their interaction. The results of these analyses revealed significant main effects for format for the Full Scale IQ and Processing Speed composite scores, with small to medium effect sizes (ds > 0.40). These format effects largely stemmed from the non-equivalence of the Coding subtest, which is used to derive both composites. For Coding, the main effect for format was statistically significant, with a large effect size (d = 0.69). Statistically significant administration order by format interaction effects were also observed for a number of composites and subtests, with medium to large effect sizes (ƞ_ps² > 0.20). In each case, higher mean scores were observed when the WISC-V was administered first in digital format. Implications of these results for research and practice are discussed.

Academic Achievement Test Use and Assessment Practices: A National Survey of Special Education Administrators

This study examined current academic achievement test use and assessment practices in the United States. Special education administrators from 725 US school districts were surveyed using an online platform to determine current trends in the use of norm-referenced academic achievement tests (NRTs) and curriculum-based measures (CBMs). Administrators reported that school psychologists most commonly administered the NRTs used to help determine special education eligibility, although special education teachers also fill this role frequently, particularly in Western states. General and special educators are the most likely staff to administer CBMs. A detailed accounting of academic achievement assessment practices is discussed including which tests are used and the differences in assessment roles by region and district locale. Implications of these findings for the training of educators and for research are considered.

Test use and assessment practices of school psychologists in the United States: Findings from the 2017 National Survey

Although several studies have examined the specific instruments and procedures used by school psychologists when conducting comprehensive psychoeducational evaluations, the last one was published over 20 years ago (viz., Wilson & Reschly, 1996). Given the substantial theoretical and practical advances in assessment since then, the purpose of the current study was to examine the test use and assessment practices of contemporary school psychologists in the United States. Data from the 2017 National Survey of Assessment Practices in School Psychology revealed that test use and assessment practices have evolved significantly. Much of this change consists of the substitution of tests and practices with limited reliability and validity with those with greater psychometric support. Results of this study also indicate that school psychologists regularly conduct multi-method assessments to prevent, identify, monitor, and remediate child and adolescent learning difficulties and other presenting problems in the schools.

An Investigation of School Psychologists' Assessment Practices of Language Proficiency With Bilingual and Limited-English-Proficient Students

This study identified school psychologists' language proficiency assessment practices with bilingual and/or limited-English-proficient students. The sample consisted of 859 school psychologists who had prior experience conducting bilingual psychoeducational evaluations. The results of the survey indicated that 62% of school psychologists usually conduct their own language proficiency assessment, while 38% primarily or only use other district or outside sources in this area. The Language Assessment Scale (LAS) was the most frequently used instrument by outside sources. Approximately 46% of the school psychologists reported that the language proficiency information they obtained from outside sources was more than six months old. Several concerns pertaining to primarily or only using outside sources to obtain language proficiency data are discussed. With respect to school psychologists who conduct their own language proficiency assessment, the Test de Vocabulario en Imágenes Peabody and the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised were the instruments most frequently used in Spanish and English, respectively. Fifty percent of the school psychologists who have conducted bilingual psychoeducational assessments reported that they had used non-standardized means to assess language proficiency. The most frequently cited method of informal language proficiency assessment was obtaining a language sample or conducting a student interview. An evaluation of school psychologists' language proficiency is provided.

Interrater Agreement of the Adjustment Scales for Children and Adolescents

Standardized behavior rating scales and checklists offer unobtrusive evaluations of students' behavior in natural social environments. This study investigated the interrater agreement of the Adjustment Scales for Children and Adolescents (ASCA), a behavior rating scale used in school settings. Participants were 71 students enrolled in a variety of special programs who were rated by 29 observers in 24 classrooms. Resulting interrater reliability coefficients were substantial, and level differences, although significant, were not clinically meaningful. It was concluded that the ASCA produced acceptable levels of interrater agreement when educational professionals and paraprofessionals observed exceptional students within a common environment.

The Training and Use of Interpreters in Bilingual Psycho-Educational Assessment: an Alternative in Need of Study

A multistate survey of 859 school psychologists who indicated prior experience conducting bilingual psycho-educational assessment found that over half had used interpreters. Seventy-seven percent of the school psychologists who reported using interpreters had received no or very little training to do so. Only 37% of the school psychologists reported that their interpreter had received formal training. In only 7% of the cases reported were both school psychologists and interpreters trained in the interpretation process. The data illustrate the need to increase training and recruitment of minority and/or non-minority graduate students proficient in two or more languages for the purpose of more accurately assessing limited-English proficient students. Additional areas for further research involving interpreters are suggested.

Possible Criterion-Related Bias of the WISC-III with a Referral Sample

This study examined whether ability scores from the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition (WISC-III) showed criterion-related bias. Participants (N= 832) comprised a referral cohort between ages 8 and 16 years that differed by race (Anglo, African American) and gender. Verbal, Performance, and Full Scale IQs from the WISC-III were used to predict Reading, Mathematics, Language, and Writing Composites from the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test (WIAT). Unlike previous research with the WISCIII, 50% of the analyses (12 out of 24) showed statistically significant effects. However, in all instances where bias was found, differences in regressions were statistically significant for intercepts, but not for slopes, and served to overpredict the performance of minority groups (African Americans, females) relative to majority groups (Anglos, males). Results are discussed in the context of how instances of differences in intercepts could mislead psychologists in interpreting children's ability scores.

Convergent and Divergent Validity of the Adjustment Scales for Children and Adolescents and the Preschool and Kindergarten Behavior Scales

Convergent and divergent (construct) validity of the Adjustment Scales for Children and Adolescents (ASCA) and the Preschool and Kindergarten Behavior Scales (PKBS) is reported. With a random sample of 154 five- and six-year-old children rated by 16 classroom teachers in a Midwestern state, convergent evidence of construct validity was provided for the PKBS Externalizing Problems scale and the ASCA Overactivity syndrome. Divergent evidence of construct validity was provided for the PKBS Externalizing Problems scale and ASCA Underactivity syndrome. Convergent and divergent evidence of construct validity for the PKBS Internalizing Problems scale and ASCA Overactivity and Underactivity syndromes was mixed. Specific scale comparisons found the ASCA to result in significantly higher mean ratings than the PKBS in 9 of 10 specific comparisons, and the effect sizes 112 were moderate to large.

Long-Term Stability of Membership in a Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–Third Edition (WISC-III) Subtest Core Profile Taxonomy

Although often applied in practice, clinically based cognitive subtest profile analysis has failed to achieve empirical support. Nonlinear multivariate subtest profile analysis may have benefits over clinically based techniques, but the psychometric properties of these methods must be studied prior to their implementation and interpretation. The current study posed the following question: Is Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–Third Edition (WISC-III) cluster membership based on nonlinear multivariate subtest profile analysis stable over a 3-year period? Membership stability to a subtest taxonomy, including constancy of displaying an unusual profile, was based on data from 585 students. General (.39) and partial (.26 to .51) kappa coefficients either failed to reach statistical significance or indicated poor classification stability, with the exception of two profile types. It was concluded that, with these two possible exceptions, profile-type membership to an empirically derived WISC-III subtest taxonomy should not be used in interpretation or educational decision making.

Construct Validity of the Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test, Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition, and Adjustment Scales for Children and Adolescents

The present study reports data supporting the construct validity of the Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test (K-BIT; Kaufman & Kaufman, 1990), the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition (WISC-III; Wechsler, 1991), and the Adjustment Scales for Children and Adolescents (ASCA; McDermott, Marston, & Stott, 1993) through convergent and discriminant comparisons in a sample of 207 students receiving special education evaluations. Results were as hypothesized, with high and statistically significant correlations between the K-BIT and WISCIII, supporting convergent validity. Moderate and statistically significant correlations were obtained between the two intelligence measures (K-BIT and WISC-III) and measures of academic achievement (WIAT, WIAT-II, WJ-R ACH, or WJ-3 ACH) at levels typical of ability-achievement correlations. Correlations between the two intelligence measures (K-BIT and WISC-III) and the ASCA, a measure of child psychopathology, were low to near zero, supporting discriminant validity. Further discriminant evidence of construct validity was provided by the low to near zero correlations between the ASCA and the measures of academic achievement.

Kaufman Adolescent and Adult Intelligence Test (KAIT): Concurrent Validity of Fluid Ability for Preadolescents and Adolescents with Central Nervous System Disorders and Scholastic Concerns

Fifty preadolescents and adolescents (33 with scholastic concerns and 17 with central nervous system disorders) were assessed with a battery that included the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition (WISC-III), the Kaufman Adolescent and Adult Intelligence Test (KAIT) Fluid subtests, and individually administered achievement tests. The KAIT Fluid IQ (FIQ) demonstrated acceptable concurrent validity with WISC-III IQ and with various achievement subtests, although an anticipated stronger association with Performance IQ than with Verbal IQ did not occur. Among subjects with scholastic concerns, KAIT FIQ was higher than WISC-III Full Scale IQ (100.6 vs. 90.3), and when KAIT FIQ was used as a predictor of achievement, more students with severe IQ/achievement discrepancies were identified (KAIT = 58%; WISC-III = 30%). Subjects with CNS disorders scored more poorly than their counterparts with scholastic concerns on the KAIT Fluid subtests but not on the WISC-III.

Confir Rmatory Factor Analysis of the WISC-III for Students with Learning Disabilities

This study conducted confirmatory factor analyses to examine 12 competing models that attempt to explain the underlying latent constructs measured by the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition (WNISC-III) in a sample of 1,201 students with learning disabilities (721 White and 480 Nonwhite). Models were selected based upon theoretical explanations of the WISC-III factor structure as well as from previously conducted empirical research conducted on the W7ISC-III normative sample and with independent samples of students with exceptionalities. For both White and Nonwhite groups, four models could not be statistically distinguished from one another based upon overall fit statistics. Plausible models included the traditional first-order four-factor oblique structure of the standardization sample, the hierarchical second-order model with four first-order factors favored by Keith and Witta (1997), a bifactor second-order model with four first-order factors described by Gustafsson and Undheim (1996), and a bifactor second-order model with three first-order factors. Current results add to a growing body of evidence suggesting that WISC-III Verbal Comprehension, Perceptual Organization. and Processing Speed factors are robust across samples but the Freedom from Distractibility factor demonstrates tenuous construct validity.

Concurrent Validity of the KAIT for Students in Grade Six and Eight

Thirty 6th- and 30 8th-grade students were administered the Kaufman Adolescent and Adult Intelligence Test (KAIT) and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition (WISGIII) in counterbalanced order. The tests yielded similar mean IQs. Correlations between the KAIT Composite and WISC-III Full Scale IQ and between the KAIT Crystallized and WISCIII Verbal IQ were strong; correlations between the KAIT Fluid and WISC-III Performance IQ were moderately strong. Sixth-grade WISC-III IQs were more variable than KAIT IQs, and the WISC-III yielded lower minimum IQs for the 6th-grade, but not the 8th-grade, sample. The WISCIII may be preferable to the KAIT for 6th graders because it has an ample number of easy items at that age level. The KAIT and WISCIII correlated about equally well with California Achievement Test scores.

Factor Replication of the WISC-III in Three Independent Samples of Children Receiving Special Education

This study examined the first-order factor structure of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition (WISC-III; Wechsler, 1991) on three samples of children previously diagnosed with a handicapping condition. Five alternative factor models were compared through confirmatory factor analysis. Previous factor analytic studies that focused on the WISC-III's four-factor solution employed all 13 subtests in their analyses, despite the fact that only 12 subtests are combined during clinical evaluations to obtain scores on the four factors. This study investigated the WISC-III factor structure by considering the 12 subtests that actually combine to yield index scores on the dimensions of Verbal Comprehension, Perceptual Organization, Processing Speed, and Freedom from Distractibility. Results support a four-factor solution for children with disabilities.

Assessing the Construct Validity of the Adjustment Scales for Children and Adolescents

This study examined the construct validity of the Adjustment Scales for Children and Adolescents (ASCA; McDermott, Marston, & Stott, 1993). Distinct group differences and discriminative validity (Youngstrom, Findling, Danielson, & Calabrese, 2001) were examined with a sample of 106 students ranging from grade 1 through 6 (53 met the DSM-IV/DISCIV criteria for ADHD, and 53 were members of a randomly selected and matched control group). Statistically significant group differences were observed with large effect sizes. Further, the ASCA demonstrated near perfect discrimination of the two groups and all diagnostic efficiency statistics were highly supportive in differentiating students meeting DISC-IV/DSM-IV criteria for ADHD from a random and matched control group

Validity of Screening Tests for Learning Disabilities: A Comparison of Three Measures

Two groups of 20 children (8 to 10 years of age) were administered three screening tests used to assess learning disabilities, each of which represents one of three approaches: the Bender Visual-Motor Gestalt Test (Bender), an example of the “single test” approach; the Quick Neurological Screening Test (QNST), which represents the “soft neurological sign” approach; and the Screening Test for the Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery-Children's Revision (ST-LNNB), which represents a “neuropsychological” approach. One group of subjects was comprised of children with learning disabilities (LD), and the comparison group was a random sample of nondisabled (ND) students. The groups were matched carefully for IQ, age, and grade. Results indicated that there were no significant group differences on either the Bender or the QNST. On the ST-LNNB, the LD group performed significantly more poorly than the ND group (p < .0001). The classification accuracy rate of the ST-LNNB was 97.5%, with 39 of the 40 subjects correctly classified according to their group status (i.e., LD or ND). The findings suggest that the Bender and QNST should not be used as tools to suggest the presence or absence of a learning disability. The ST-LNNB may be a valid instrument for screening for learning disabilities, although more study will be needed prior to clinical application.

Validity of the Wide Range Intelligence Test: Differential Effects across Race/Ethnicity, Gender, and Education Level

This study investigated the differential validity of the Wide Range Intelligence Test, which is a new, brief measure of ability. Participants (N= 744) ranged in age from 5 through 85 years (M = 26.7 years, SD = 21.4 years) and varied by the demographic variables of gender, race/ethnicity (Anglo, African American, Hispanic), and education level (less than high school degree, high school degree, some postsecondary training, college and beyond). General, Verbal, and Visual IQs from the WRIT were used to predict Reading, Mathematics, and Spelling criteria on the Wide Range Achievement Test-Third Edition. Differences in prediction were evaluated among demographic subgroups via Potthoff s technique. Of the 90 simultaneous tests, 65 revealed no statistically significant between-group differences. The majority of statistically significant differences were found to have little practical influence when measures of effect size were considered. Results are discussed in the context of other ability measures that were previously investigated for differential validity, as well as educational implications for clinicians.

Projective Test Use Among School Psychologists

The use of projective techniques by school psychologists has been a point of interest and debate, with a number of survey studies documenting usage. The purpose of this study is to update the status of projective use among school psychologists, with a specific focus on their use in the social emotional assessment of children in schools. In addition to gathering information about the frequency of use, this study provides information about the types of assessment activities in which the assessments are used and practitioner’s perception of the utility of specific instruments. Results indicate that school psychologists view projective assessments as moderately useful and that they continue to use projectives across grades and for a variety of educational purposes, including eligibility determination and intervention development. Results are discussed critically in the context of previous research.

Normative Factor Structure of the AAMR Adaptive Behavior Scale-School, Second Edition

The Adaptive Behavior Scale-School, Second Edition (ABS-S:2; Lambert, Nihira, & Leland, 1993) is one of the most popular tests of adaptive behavior. Critical methodological flaws in the confirmatory factor analysis reported in the test manual and the results of independent exploratory factor analyses leave the structural validity of the ABS-S:2 underdefined. The present study conducted exploratory factor analysis of the combined ABS-S:2 normative sample of 3,328 students (2,074 with mental retardation and 1,254 without mental retardation). Following principal axis factor extraction and oblique rotation, a two-factor solution was deemed the best dimensional model. These results suggest that interpretation of the ABS-S:2 should focus on its two major conceptual components (personal independence and social behavior) rather than the five factors and 16 domains endorsed by its authors.

Cross-Validation of the WISC-III Factor Structure in Two Samples of Children with Learning Disabilities

Scores on the WIS-III from 280 children with learning disabilities were analyzed with confirmatory factor analysis. Six competing models reported in the literature were tested and then cross-validated in an independent sample of 240 children with learning disabilities. Results revealed that a 4-factor model offered the most accurate and stable explanation of the data when the Symbol Search subtest was included. A 3-factor model also fit the data closely and behaved reliably when the Symbol Search subtest was excluded from the analysis. Both models left much of the variance for each subtest unexplained, however, and correlations between the subscale (factor) scores and their respective factors indicated that the Freedom from Distractibility subscale was saturated with unidentified sources of variation in both models. The practical implications of these results were discussed.

School Psychologists' Assessment Practices with Bilingual and Limited-English-Proficient Students

This study, a survey of 859 National Association of School Psychologist (NASP) members from eight states, identified school psychologists' assessment practices with bilingual and limited-English-proficient (LEP) students and compared test usage frequencies between English-only and bilingual psychoeducational assessment. Cognitive, achievement, and adaptive behavior domains were examined. In the area of cognitive assessment, the WISC-R or WISC-III administered in English only was the measure most frequently used. Moreover, the use of nonverbal intelligence tests appeared to be a common practice. With respect to achievement testing in English and Spanish, the Woodcock instruments were used by approximately three-fourths of the respondents. Curriculum-based assessment was employed significantly more often in bilingual psychoeducational assessment than in traditional English-only assessment. For assessing adaptive behavior, 90% of the sample used at least one of the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Survey Scales. Across all three domains, there was much more diversity in test usage in bilingual psychoeducational assessment in comparison to assessment conducted with English-speaking pupils. An evaluation of and recommendations for assessment practices with LEP and bilingual students are provided.

An Epidemiological-Cohort Study of DAS Processing Speed Factor: How Well Does it Identify Concurrent Achievement and Behavior Problems?

This study evaluated the criterion-related validity for the Speed of Processing (SP) factor of the Differential Ability Scales (DAS; Elliott, 1990). The SP factor is comprised of one subtest score (Speed of Information Processing) based on results from factor analyses. Participants were an epidemiological sample (N= 1,400) stratified, within age levels, in proportion to census data on demography (e.g., race, gender, parents' educational levels). From this cohort, groups with unusual SP strengths and SP weaknesses were identified using General Cognitive Ability (GCA) scores from the DAS as contrasts (i.e., SP>GCA and GCA>SP differences at a population prevalence < 5%). The SP>GCA group (n= 60) and the GCASP group (n = 60) were matched to respective controls (where each control n = 60) on the demographic variables listed above and GCAs. Each group and its control were compared across three norm-referenced measures of achievement and six teacher-rated indices of behavioral adjustment. Comparisons failed to show significant differences on any criterion variable. Results are discussed in the context of how well epidemiological samples evaluate the validity of ability profiles and the need for future research to use more representative measures of processing speed (i.e., those with two or more subtests contributing to the factor).

Long-Term Stability of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition among Demographic Subgroups: Gender, Race/Ethnicity, and Age

Long-term stability of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Third Edition was investigated separately across gender, race/ethnicity, and age subgroups. Participants were 642 students from 33 states evaluated twice for special education eligibility over a mean test-retest interval of 2.83 years. Gender, race/ethnicity, and age produced few or no differential effects on long-term stability coefficients. Most of the demographic subgroup stability coefficients for VIQ, PIQ FSIQ VCI, and POI scores demonstrated satisfactory long-term stability. However, stability coefficients for FDI, PSI, and VIQ-PIQ discrepancy scores were not adequate. Mean differences from first testing to second testing were either not statistically significant or not clinically meaningful for all groups, except Hispanic/Latino youths. Analysis of individual change scores indicated that only the FSIQ was sufficiently stable for use with individual students. Results extended those of Canivez and Watkins (1998), supporting long-term stability for the WISC-III among most demographic subgroups studied.

Psychological Assessment of English Language Learners and/or Bilingual Students: An Investigation of School Psychologists' Current Practices

This study examined critical components of the assessment procedures school psychologists use when conducting evaluations for emotional disturbance with students who are English language learners (ELLs). A random sample of 1,500 members of NASP from 12 states with high limited English proficient populations was surveyed. A total of 439 respondents (29.27%) returned the survey. Only 223 of the respondents indicated that they had assessed ELLs. The results indicate that school psychologists are assessing ELLs from many different language groups, Spanish being the most common language group assessed. A significant number of school psychologists used interpreters when assessing ELLs. The following assessment methods were employed by over 90% of the respondents: behavioral observation, child interview, teacher interview, and parent interview. These four methods were judged to be very helpful. The most frequently used measures included Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test (75.8%), Draw-A-Person (71.7%), House-Tree-Person (58.4%), Kinetic Family Drawing (55.3%), and Generic Sentence Completion Forms (52.5%). The Acculturation Rating Scale for Mexican Americans (ARSMA), all BASC measures (PRS in English and Spanish, TRS, SRP, SDH, and SOS), Million, and Haak Sentence Completion obtained the highest mean ratings for level of helpfulness. Implications of results with respect to professional standards and recommended practices are discussed.

Validity of the Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test

Concurrent validity of the Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test (K-BIT) with a sample of elementary- and middle-school students referred for multidisciplinary evaluations in a public school setting is presented. All correlations between the K-BIT and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–Third Edition (WISC-III) were significant. Correlations ranged from .36 ( r2 = .10) to .87 ( r2 = .75), Mr = .71 ( Mr2 = .50). K-BIT Vocabulary-Matrices discrepancy scores accounted for a significant but small proportion (13%) of the variability in WISC-III VIQ-PIQ discrepancies, but kappa ( k) coefficients for these discrepancies indicated that agreement was generally no better than chance. The K-BIT appears to be a promising general intellectual screening instrument when more comprehensive assessment is not possible or needed, but interpretation is best left at the IQ Composite level for the present time.

Pratiques et Perceptions des Psychologues Scolaires Face à l’Évaluation des Élèves en Difficulté d’Apprentissage au Québec

This article explores the assessment practices of Quebec school psychologists in the evaluation of elementary school students referred for suspected learning disabilities as well as their perceptions of these practices. The purpose of this study is to identify the ratio of learning disabled students within the school psychologist’s clientele, the time spent assessing these students, the learning disabilities definition used by psychologists, the most frequently used assessment tools, and the psychologist’s role in the diagnosis of learning disabilities. Seventy-six school psychologists participate in this research. The majority of participants estimates that learning-disabled students represent more than 50% of their clientele. Seventy-two percent of the time they devote to these students is spent doing assessments. Results show that all participants use the Wechsler Scales. However, their assessment practices vary greatly, as they use a variety of other tests. They deplore the lack of consensus over assessment and identification procedures.

Assessment of Mental Retardation by School Psychologists

School psychologists play an important role in the assessment and classification of mental retardation. Although the current diagnostic and classification systems contain slight differences in their diagnostic criteria for mental retardation, they contain three essential elements: (a) a presence of significant deficits in cognitive functioning, (b) a concurrent presence of significant limitations in adaptive behavior, and (c) an onset during the developmental period. Researchers have previously documented the over reliance of IQ testing alone in the diagnosis and classification of mental retardation. We explored the practices and opinions of a random sample of school psychologists regarding the assessment of children for mental retardation. The results of this study reveal that (a) the IQ test results are viewed by many school psychologists as the sole indicator needed to classify a child with mental retardation, (b) 25% of school psychologists surveyed never used a measure of adaptive behavior, and (c) less than half (45%) of psychologists surveyed reported using systematically a standardized measure of adaptive behavior when classifying children with mental retardation. Implications of these findings are discussed.

Structural Validity of the WISC-III for a National Sample of Native American Students

Test bias research with Native American participants is uncommon, although individual tests of intelligence are often used with Native American students to determine eligibility for special education services. Only two studies with minimally adequate sample sizes have addressed the structural validity of major tests of intelligence in Native American populations. It is unfortunate that both used an obsolete test and included students from only two tribes. This study used confirmatory factor analyses to examine the structure of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—Third Edition (WISC-III) among 344 Native American students representing 12 Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) Nations attending BIA schools in 11 states. Results indicated that Wechsler's four-factor oblique model exhibited the best overall statistical fit. Thus, the underlying factor structure of the WISC-III with a national sample of Native Americans was similar to that found in the normative sample. Implications for school psychologists are presented and recommendations for further research are provided.

Structural Validity of the WISC-IV for Students With Learning Disabilities

The structural validity of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fourth Edition (WISC-IV) was evaluated using confirmatory factor analysis for a clinical sample of 1,537 students diagnosed with specific learning disabilities (SLD) by school psychologists in two large southwestern school districts. Results indicated that a bifactor model consisting of four first-order domain specific factors and a general intelligence breadth factor fit the data best. Consequently, the structural validity of the WISC-IV for students with SLD was supported by the results of the present study. The general intelligence factor contributed the most information, accounting for 48% of the common variance. Given this structure, it was recommended that score interpretation should emphasize the Full-Scale IQ score because of the marginal contributions of the first-order domain-specific factors and their low precision of measurement independent of the general factor.

Assessing the Flynn Effect in the Wechsler Scales

The current study examined the Flynn Effect (i.e., the increase in IQ scores over time) across all editions of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), and Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI). By reverse engineering the correlation and scale score transformations from each Wechsler edition’s technical manual, we made a mean and covariance matrix using the subtests and age groups that were in common for all editions of a given instrument. The results indicated that when aggregated, there was a FE of 0.44 IQ points/year. This Wechsler instrument used, however, moderates the FE, with the WISC showing the largest FE (0.73 IQ points/year) and the WAIS showing a smallest FE (0.30 IQ points/year). Moreover, this study found that the amount of invariant indicators across instruments and age groups varied substantially, ranging from 51.53% in the WISC for the 7-year-old group to 10.00% in the WPPSI for the 5- and 5.5-year-old age groups. Last, we discuss future direction for FE research based on these results.

Are self-report measures of adaptive functioning appropriate for those high in psychopathic traits?

There is ongoing debate about the methods that evaluators should use to assess the adaptive functioning of an individual in an Atkins claim, including the appropriateness of using self-report measures and extent to which adaptive functioning measures are valid for persons with a history of violent offending. This study examined whether offenders' self-report adaptive functioning scores tended to decrease as their level of psychopathic traits increased. Eighty-five male felony probationers completed the self-report version of the Adaptive Behavior Assessment System - II (ABAS-II: Harrison & Oakland, 2003), the Psychopathic Personality Inventory - Revised (PPI-R: Lilienfeld & Widows, 2005), and a brief intelligence screening measure. ABAS-II composite scores were negatively correlated with PPI-R Self-Centered Impulsivity and Coldheartedness scores, but positively correlated with Fearless Dominance scores. These relationships appeared to be due, in part, to over-reporting symptoms of impairment across measures, suggesting that scores on self-report adaptive functioning measures may be especially susceptible to feigning.

Comparison of the Bender Gestalt-II and VMI-V in Samples of Typical Children and Children with High-Functioning Autism Spectrum Disorders

The visual-motor skills of 60 children with high-functioning autism spectrum disorders (HFASDs) and 46 typically developing children were assessed using the Bender Visual-Motor Gestalt Test— Second Edition (BG-II) and Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration, Fifth Edition (VMI-V). Within-group comparisons yielded substantive mean differences between the BG-II Copy score and VMI-V composite,Visual Perception and Motor Coordination sections of the VMI-V, and Copy and Recall sections of the BG-II, in both samples. Between-groups differences were assessed in a subsample of 27 participants from each group matched on age, gender, ethnicity, and parent education. After statistically controlling for IQ, the HFASD group scored significantly lower than the typically developing group on the two scores from each test with greater motor involvement. Intratest and intertest correlations were similar across the two samples. Correlations between the BG-II Copy score and VMI-V composite were .55 for the HFASD and .48 for the typically developing sample.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Assessment Practices by Practicing School Psychologists

The purpose of the current study is to examine school psychologists' assessment practices of children presenting with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptomology using a case vignette. A random sample of 500 members of the National Association of School Psychologists is sent surveys; 246 are included in the study (49%). Results indicate some regional differences in the use of instruments and procedures selected by the respondents based on the case vignette. The most commonly selected assessment instruments and procedures are reflective of an approach consistent with a best practice, ongoing problem-solving process. Limitations of current practices are discussed.

Constructing local age norms based on ability for the Bender-Gestalt test

The purpose of this study was to examine developmental patterns in visuomotor functioning across age and ability groups. A second purpose was to develop local norms to allow practicing psychologists to examine relative differences within age and IQ groups in visuomotor performance. Thus, an age-by-mental ability normative data set (N=4,014) was constructed from archival records from 10 public school systems and analyzed to identify both qualitative and quantitative differences in visuomotor functioning for children between 6 and 18.11 yr. of age across 9 IQ levels ranging from 40 to 129.