Graphene oxide/manganese ferrite nanohybrids for magnetic resonance imaging, photothermal therapy and drug delivery

Graphene oxide nanoarchitectures in cancer therapy: Drug and gene delivery, phototherapy, immunotherapy, and vaccine development

The latest advancements in oncology involves the creation of multifunctional nanostructures. The integration of nanoparticles into the realm of cancer therapy has brought about a transformative shift, revolutionizing the approach to addressing existing challenges and limitations in tumor elimination. This is particularly crucial in combating the emergence of resistance, which has significantly undermined the effectiveness of treatments like chemotherapy and radiotherapy. GO stands as a carbon-derived nanoparticle that is increasingly finding utility across diverse domains, notably in the realm of biomedicine. The utilization of GO nanostructures holds promise in the arena of oncology, enabling precise transportation of drugs and genetic material to targeted sites. GO nanomaterials offer the opportunity to enhance the pharmacokinetic behavior and bioavailability of drugs, with documented instances of these nanocarriers elevating drug accumulation at the tumor location. The GO nanostructures encapsulate genes, shielding them from degradation and facilitating their uptake within cancer cells, thereby promoting efficient gene silencing. The capability of GO to facilitate phototherapy has led to notable advancements in reducing tumor progression. By PDT and PTT combination, GO nanomaterials hold the capacity to diminish tumorigenesis. GO nanomaterials have the potential to trigger both cellular and innate immunity, making them promising contenders for vaccine development. Additionally, types of GO nanoparticles that respond to specific stimuli have been applied in cancer eradication, as well as for the purpose of cancer detection and biomarker diagnosis. Endocytosis serves as the mechanism through which GO nanomaterials are internalized. Given these advantages, the utilization of GO nanomaterials for tumor elimination comes highly recommended.

Biocompatible Calcium Ion-Doped Magnesium Ferrite Nanoparticles as a New Family of Photothermal Therapeutic Materials for Cancer Treatment

Novel biocompatible and efficient photothermal (PT) therapeutic materials for cancer treatment have recently garnered significant attention, owing to their effective ablation of cancer cells, minimal invasiveness, quick recovery, and minimal damage to healthy cells. In this study, we designed and developed calcium ion-doped magnesium ferrite nanoparticles (Ca²⁺-doped MgFe₂O₄ NPs) as novel and effective PT therapeutic materials for cancer treatment, owing to their good biocompatibility, biosafety, high near-infrared (NIR) absorption, easy localization, short treatment period, remote controllability, high efficiency, and high specificity. The studied Ca²⁺-doped MgFe₂O₄ NPs exhibited a uniform spherical morphology with particle sizes of 14.24 ± 1.32 nm and a strong PT conversion efficiency (30.12%), making them promising for cancer photothermal therapy (PTT). In vitro experiments showed that Ca²⁺-doped MgFe₂O₄ NPs had no significant cytotoxic effects on non-laser-irradiated MDA-MB-231 cells, confirming that Ca²⁺-doped MgFe₂O₄ NPs exhibited high biocompatibility. More interestingly, Ca²⁺-doped MgFe₂O₄ NPs exhibited superior cytotoxicity to laser-irradiated MDA-MB-231 cells, inducing significant cell death. Our study proposes novel, safe, high-efficiency, and biocompatible PT therapeutics for treating cancers, opening new vistas for the future development of cancer PTT.

Insights of Platinum Drug Interaction with Spinel Magnetic Nanocomposites for Targeted Anti-Cancer Effect

In nanotherapeutics, gaining insight about the drug interaction with the pore architecture and surface functional groups of nanocarriers is crucial to aid in the development of targeted drug delivery. Manganese ferrite impregnated graphene oxide (MnFe₂O₄/GO) with a two-dimensional sheet and spherical silica with a three-dimensional interconnected porous structure (MnFe₂O₄/silica) were evaluated for cisplatin release and cytotoxic effects. Characterization studies revealed the presence of Mn²⁺ species with a variable spinel cubic phase and superparamagnetic effect. We used first principles calculations to study the physisorption of cisplatin on monodispersed silica and on single- and multi-layered GO. The binding energy of cisplatin on silica and single-layer GO was ~1.5 eV, while it was about double that value for the multilayer GO structure. Moreover, we treated MCF-7 (breast cancer cells) and HFF-1 (human foreskin fibroblast) with our nanocomposites and used the cell viability assay MTT. Both nanocomposites significantly reduced the cell viability. Pt⁴⁺ species of cisplatin on the spinel ferrite/silica nanocomposite had a better effect on the cytotoxic capability when compared to GO. The EC50 for MnFe₂O₄/silica/cisplatin and MnFe₂O₄/GO/cisplatin on MCF-7 was: 48.43 µg/mL and 85.36 µg/mL, respectively. The EC50 for the same conditions on HFF was: 102.92 µg/mL and 102.21 µg/mL, respectively. In addition, immunofluorescence images using c-caspase 3/7, and TEM analysis indicated that treating cells with these nanocomposites resulted in apoptosis as the major mechanism of cell death.

Hybrid Nanoparticles of Citrate-Coated Manganese Ferrite and Gold Nanorods in Magneto-Optical Imaging and Thermal Therapy

The development of nanomaterials has drawn considerable attention in nanomedicine to advance cancer diagnosis and treatment over the last decades. Gold nanorods (GNRs) and magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) have been known as commonly used nanostructures in biomedical applications due to their attractive optical properties and superparamagnetic (SP) behaviors, respectively. In this study, we proposed a simple combination of plasmonic and SP properties into hybrid NPs of citrate-coated manganese ferrite (Ci-MnFe₂O₄) and cetyltrimethylammonium bromide-coated GNRs (CTAB-GNRs). In this regard, two different samples were prepared: the first was composed of Ci-MnFe₂O₄ (0.4 wt%), and the second contained hybrid NPs of Ci-MnFe₂O₄ (0.4 wt%) and CTAB-GNRs (0.04 wt%). Characterization measurements such as UV-Visible spectroscopy and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) revealed electrostatic interactions caused by the opposing surface charges of hybrid NPs, which resulted in the formation of small nanoclusters. The performance of the two samples was investigated using magneto-motive ultrasound imaging (MMUS). The sample containing Ci-MnFe₂O₄_CTAB-GNRs demonstrated a displacement nearly two-fold greater than just using Ci-MnFe₂O₄; therefore, enhancing MMUS image contrast. Furthermore, the preliminary potential of these hybrid NPs was also examined in magnetic hyperthermia (MH) and photoacoustic imaging (PAI) modalities. Lastly, these hybrid NPs demonstrated high stability and an absence of aggregation in water and phosphate buffer solution (PBS) medium. Thus, Ci-MnFe₂O₄_CTAB-GNRs hybrid NPs can be considered as a potential contrast agent in MMUS and PAI and a heat generator in MH.

Doxorubicin-loaded graphene oxide nanocomposites in cancer medicine: Stimuli-responsive carriers, co-delivery and suppressing resistance

INTRODUCTION

The application of doxorubicin (DOX) in cancer therapy has been limited due to its drug resistance and poor internalization. Graphene oxide (GO) nanostructures have the capacity for DOX delivery while promoting its cytotoxicity in cancer.

AREAS COVERED

The favorable characteristics of GO nanocomposites, preparation method, and application in cancer therapy are described. Then, DOX resistance in cancer is discussed. The GO-mediated photothermal therapy and DOX delivery for cancer suppression are described. Preparation of stimuli-responsive GO nanocomposites, surface functionalization, hybrid nanoparticles, and theranostic applications are emphasized in DOX chemotherapy.

EXPERT OPINION

Graphene oxide nanoparticle-based photothermal therapy maximizes the anti-cancer activity of DOX against cancer cells. Apart from DOX delivery, GO nanomaterials are capable of loading anti-cancer agents and genetic tools to minimize drug resistance and enhance the cytolytic impact of DOX in cancer eradication. To enhance DOX accumulation in cancer cells, stimuli-responsive (redox-, light-, enzyme- and pH-sensitive) GO nanoparticles have been developed for DOX delivery. Further development of targeted delivery of DOX-loaded GO nanomaterials against cancer cells may be achieved by surface modification of polymers such as polyethylene glycol, hyaluronic acid, and chitosan. Doxorubicin-loaded GO nanoparticles have demonstrated theranostic potential for simultaneous diagnosis and therapy. Hybridization of GO with other nanocarriers such as silica and gold nanoparticles further broadens their potential anti-cancer therapy applications.

Smart poly(amidoamine) dendron-functionalized magnetic graphene oxide for cancer therapy

A novel multicomponent magnetic nanocomposite whose drug release behavior is pH and temperature dependent.

Recent Advances of Manganese-Based Hybrid Nanomaterials for Cancer Precision Medicine

Cancer precision medicine (CPM) could tailor the best treatment for individual cancer patients, while imaging techniques play important roles in its application. With the characteristics of noninvasion, nonionized, radiation-free, multidimensional imaging function, and real-time monitoring, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is an effective way for early tumor detection, and it has become a tower of strength in CPM imaging techniques. Due to linkage with nephrogenic systemic fibrosis (NSF), gadolinium (Gd)-based contrast agent (CA), which was long used in MRI, has been restricted by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). In this review, we would like to introduce the manganese (Mn)-based CAs that could significantly increase the safety of MRI CAs by realizing more superior performance and functions simultaneously in the diagnosis and treatment of tumors. Also, recent advances in Mn-based hybrid nanomaterials for CPM are summarized and discussed.

Ferrite-encapsulated nanoparticles with stable photothermal performance for multimodal imaging-guided atherosclerotic plaque neovascularization therapy

Pathological angiogenesis is a critical contributor to atherosclerotic plaque rupture. However, there are few effective theranostic strategies to stabilize plaques by suppressing neovascularization. In this study, we fabricated a polymeric nanosystem using 3 nm manganese ferrite (MnFe₂O₄) and perfluorohexane (PFH) stabilized by polylactic acid-glycolic acid (PLGA) shells and conjugated to the surface of an anti-vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 (VEGFR2) antibody [ramucirumab (Ram)]. The PFH@PLGA/MnFe₂O₄-Ram nanoparticles (NPs) were used as atherosclerotic plaque angiogenesis theranostics for multimodal imaging-guided photothermal therapy (PTT). Three-nanometer MnFe₂O₄ is an excellent magnetic resonance imaging T1 and photoacoustic imaging contrast agent. Upon exposure to near-infrared (NIR) light, MnFe₂O₄ in the NPs could transform NIR light into thermal energy for the photothermal elimination of plaque angiogenesis. Additionally, optical droplet vaporization of PFH in the NPs triggered by the thermal effect to form gas bubbles enhanced ultrasound imaging. Our in vitro experiments revealed that PFH@PLGA/MnFe₂O₄-Ram NPs actively accumulated in rabbit aortic endothelial cells, and NP-mediated PTT promoted endothelial cell apoptosis while inhibiting their proliferation, migration, and tubulogenesis. Notably, the PFH@PLGA/MnFe₂O₄-Ram NPs possessed excellent photostability and biocompatibility. In the rabbit advanced atherosclerotic plaque model, PFH@PLGA/MnFe₂O₄-Ram NP-guided PTT significantly induced apoptosis of neovascular endothelial cells and improved the hypoxia status in the plaque 3 days after treatment. On day 28, PTT significantly reduced the density of neovessels and subsequently stabilized rabbit plaques by inhibiting plaque hemorrhage and macrophage infiltration. Collectively, these results suggest that PFH@PLGA/MnFe₂O₄-Ram NP-guided PTT is a safe and effective theranostic strategy for inhibiting atherosclerotic plaque angiogenesis.

Synthesis of Manganese Ferrite/Graphene Oxide Magnetic Nanocomposite for Pollutants Removal from Water

These days, environmental pollution, notably water pollution, has increasingly caused severe human health problems. The major water pollutants are heavy metals. MnFe2O4/GO nanocomposite was prepared in the current work via in situ method and tested to remove lead ion Pb2+ and neutral red (NR) dye from water. The prepared nanocomposite was characterized using different techniques, including X-ray diffraction, transmission electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, Raman spectra, and vibrating sample magnetometer. The prepared nanocomposite showed high adsorption capacity toward Pb2+ and NR dye removal according to Langmuir fitting indicating the monolayer homogeneous adsorption of pollutants over the adsorbent surface and can be separated easily with an external magnet. The effect of different factors, including contact time, pH, initial concentration, and adsorbent dose on the adsorption, were also studied. The increased concentration of pollutants led to increased adsorption capacity from 63 to 625 mg/g for Pb2+ ions and from 20 to 90 mg/g for NR dye. The increased adsorbent dose led to increased removal efficiency from 39% to 98.8% and from 63% to 94% for Pb2+ and NR dye, respectively. The optimum pH for the adsorption of both pollutants was found to be 6.0. The reusability of MnFe2O4/GO nanocomposite was studied for up to five cycles. The nanocomposite can keep its efficiency even after the studied cycles. So, the prepared magnetic nanocomposite is a promising material for water treatment.

Recent Trends in Photoacoustic Imaging Techniques for 2D Nanomaterial-Based Phototherapy

A variety of 2D materials have been developed for therapeutic biomedical studies. Because of their excellent physicochemical properties, 2D materials can be used as carriers for delivering therapeutic agents into a lesion, leading to phototherapy. Various optical imaging techniques have been used for the monitoring of the treatment process. Among these, photoacoustic imaging has unique advantages including relatively deep imaging depth and large field of view with high spatial resolution. In this review article, we summarize the types of photoacoustic imaging systems used for phototherapy monitoring, then we explore contrast-enhanced photoacoustic images using 2D materials. Finally, photoacoustic image-guided phototherapies are discussed. We conclude that 2D material-based phototherapy can be efficiently monitored by photoacoustic imaging techniques.

Relaxivity of manganese ferrite nanoparticles

Manganese ferrite nanoparticles are superparamagnetic and have very high saturation magnetization, which makes them candidates for application as MRI contrast agents. Because these nanoparticles are very effective enhancers of transverse relaxation, they are particularly suitable as negative (T₂-weighted) contrast agents. The magnitude of the relaxivity of nanoparticulate Mn ferrites seems to be determined mainly by the method of preparation, their dimensions, and their saturation magnetization.

Graphene and other 2D materials: a multidisciplinary analysis to uncover the hidden potential as cancer theranostics

Cancer represents one of the main causes of death in the world; hence the development of more specific approaches for its diagnosis and treatment is urgently needed in clinical practice. Here we aim at providing a comprehensive review on the use of 2-dimensional materials (2DMs) in cancer theranostics. In particular, we focus on graphene-related materials (GRMs), graphene hybrids, and graphdiyne (GDY), as well as other emerging 2DMs, such as MXene, tungsten disulfide (WS2), molybdenum disulfide (MoS2), hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN), black phosphorus (BP), silicene, antimonene (AM), germanene, biotite (black mica), metal organic frameworks (MOFs), and others. The results reported in the scientific literature in the last ten years (>200 papers) are dissected here with respect to the wide variety of combinations of imaging methodologies and therapeutic approaches, including drug/gene delivery, photothermal/photodynamic therapy, sonodynamic therapy, and immunotherapy. We provide a unique multidisciplinary approach in discussing the literature, which also includes a detailed section on the characterization methods used to analyze the material properties, highlighting the merits and limitations of the different approaches. The aim of this review is to show the strong potential of 2DMs for use as cancer theranostics, as well as to highlight issues that prevent the clinical translation of these materials. Overall, we hope to shed light on the hidden potential of the vast panorama of new and emerging 2DMs as clinical cancer theranostics.

New Aspects of Ultrasound-Mediated Targeted Delivery and Therapy for Cancer

Ultrasound-mediated targeted delivery (UMTD), a novel delivery modality of therapeutic materials based on ultrasound, shows great potential in biomedical applications. By coupling ultrasound contrast agents with therapeutic materials, UMTD combines the advantages of ultrasound imaging and carrier, which benefit deep tissue penetration and high concentration aggregation. In this paper we introduced recent advances in ultrasound contrast agents and applications in tumor therapy. Ultrasound contrast agents were categorized by their functions, mainly including thermosensitive, pH-sensitive and photosensitive ultrasound contrast agents. The various applications of UMTD in tumor treatment were summarized as follows: drug therapy, transfection of anti-oncogene, RNA interference, vaccine immunotherapy, monoclonal antibody immunotherapy, adoptive cellular immunotherapy, cytokine immunotherapy, and so on. In the end, we elaborated on the current challenges and provided perspectives of UMTD for clinical applications.

Spinel ferrite (AFe2O4)-based heterostructured designs for lithium-ion battery, environmental monitoring, and biomedical applications

The development of spinel ferrite nanomaterial (SFN)-based hybrid architectures has become more popular owing to the fascinating physicochemical properties of SFNs, such as their good electro-optical and catalytic properties, high chemothermal stability, ease of functionalization, and superparamagnetic behaviour. Furthermore, achieving the perfect combination of SFNs and different nanomaterials has promised to open up many unique synergistic effects and advantages. Inspired by the above-mentioned noteworthy properties, numerous and varied applications have been recently developed, such as energy storage in lithium-ion batteries, environmental pollutant monitoring, and, especially, biomedical applications. In this review, recent development efforts relating to SFN-based hybrid designs are described in detail and logically, classified according to 4 major hybrid structures: SFNs/carbonaceous nanomaterials; SFNs/metal–metal oxides; SFNs/MS₂; and SFNs/other materials. The underlying advantages of the additional interactions and combinations of effects, compared to the standalone components, and the potential uses have been analyzed and assessed for each hybrid structure in relation to lithium-ion battery, environmental, and biomedical applications.

We have summarized recent developments in SFN-based hybrid designs. The additional interactions, combination effects, and important changes have been analyzed and assessed for LIB, environmental monitoring, and biomedical applications.

Iron Oxide Nanoparticles in Photothermal Therapy

Photothermal therapy is a kind of therapy based on increasing the temperature of tumoral cells above 42 °C. To this aim, cells must be illuminated with a laser, and the energy of the radiation is transformed in heat. Usually, the employed radiation belongs to the near-infrared radiation range. At this range, the absorption and scattering of the radiation by the body is minimal. Thus, tissues are almost transparent. To improve the efficacy and selectivity of the energy-to-heat transduction, a light-absorbing material, the photothermal agent, must be introduced into the tumor. At present, a vast array of compounds are available as photothermal agents. Among the substances used as photothermal agents, gold-based compounds are one of the most employed. However, the undefined toxicity of this metal hinders their clinical investigations in the long run. Magnetic nanoparticles are a good alternative for use as a photothermal agent in the treatment of tumors. Such nanoparticles, especially those formed by iron oxides, can be used in combination with other substances or used themselves as photothermal agents. The combination of magnetic nanoparticles with other photothermal agents adds more capabilities to the therapeutic system: the nanoparticles can be directed magnetically to the site of interest (the tumor) and their distribution in tumors and other organs can be imaged. When used alone, magnetic nanoparticles present, in theory, an important limitation: their molar absorption coefficient in the near infrared region is low. The controlled clustering of the nanoparticles can solve this drawback. In such conditions, the absorption of the indicated radiation is higher and the conversion of energy in heat is more efficient than in individual nanoparticles. On the other hand, it can be designed as a therapeutic system, in which the heat generated by magnetic nanoparticles after irradiation with infrared light can release a drug attached to the nanoparticles in a controlled manner. This form of targeted drug delivery seems to be a promising tool of chemo-phototherapy. Finally, the heating efficiency of iron oxide nanoparticles can be increased if the infrared radiation is combined with an alternating magnetic field.

Recent advances in different modal imaging-guided photothermal therapy

Photothermal therapy (PTT) has recently attracted considerable attention owing to its controllable treatment process, high tumour eradication efficiency and minimal side effects on non-cancer cells. PTT can melt cancerous cells by localising tissue hyperthermia induced by internalised therapeutic agents with a high photothermal conversion efficiency under external laser irradiation. Numerous in vitro and in vivo studies have shown the significant potential of PTT to treat tumours in future practical applications. Unfortunately, the lack of visualisation towards agent delivery and internalisation, as well as imaging-guided comprehensive evaluation of therapeutic outcome, limits its further application. Developments in combined photothermal therapeutic nanoplatforms guided by different imaging modalities have compensated for the major drawback of PTT alone, proving PTT to be a promising technique in biomedical applications. In this review, we introduce recent developments in different imaging modalities including single-modal, dual-modal, triple-modal and even multi-modal imaging-guided PTT, together with imaging-guided multi-functional theranostic nanoplatforms.

Multifunctional Inorganic Nanoparticles: Recent Progress in Thermal Therapy and Imaging

Nanotechnology has enabled the development of many alternative anti-cancer approaches, such as thermal therapies, which cause minimal damage to healthy cells. Current challenges in cancer treatment are the identification of the diseased area and its efficient treatment without generating many side effects. Image-guided therapies can be a useful tool to diagnose and treat the diseased tissue and they offer therapy and imaging using a single nanostructure. The present review mainly focuses on recent advances in the field of thermal therapy and imaging integrated with multifunctional inorganic nanoparticles. The main heating sources for heat-induced therapies are the surface plasmon resonance (SPR) in the near infrared region and alternating magnetic fields (AMFs). The different families of inorganic nanoparticles employed for SPR- and AMF-based thermal therapies and imaging are described. Furthermore, inorganic nanomaterials developed for multimodal therapies with different and multi-imaging modalities are presented in detail. Finally, relevant clinical perspectives and the future scope of inorganic nanoparticles in image-guided therapies are discussed.

Applications and toxicity of graphene family nanomaterials and their composites

Graphene has attracted much attention of scientific community due to its enormous potential in different fields, including medical sciences, agriculture, food safety, cancer research, and tissue engineering. The potential for widespread human exposure raises safety concerns about graphene and its derivatives, referred to as graphene family nanomaterials (GFNs). Due to their unique chemical and physical properties, graphene and its derivatives have found important places in their respective application fields, yet they are being found to have cytotoxic and genotoxic effects too. Since the discovery of graphene, a number of researches are being conducted to find out the toxic potential of GFNs to different cell and animal models, finding their suitability for being used in new and varied innovative fields. This paper presents a systematic review of the research done on GFNs and gives an insight into the mode and action of these nanosized moieties. The paper also emphasizes on the recent and up-to-date developments in research on GFNs and their nanocomposites for their toxic effects.