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Hassan SM, Farid A, Panda SS, Bekheit MS, Dinkins H, Fayad W, Girgis AS. Indole Compounds in Oncology: Therapeutic Potential and Mechanistic Insights. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2024; 17:922. [PMID: 39065774 PMCID: PMC11280311 DOI: 10.3390/ph17070922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2024] [Revised: 06/28/2024] [Accepted: 07/04/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Cancer remains a formidable global health challenge, with current treatment modalities such as chemotherapy, radiotherapy, surgery, and targeted therapy often hindered by low efficacy and adverse side effects. The indole scaffold, a prominent heterocyclic structure, has emerged as a promising candidate in the fight against cancer. This review consolidates recent advancements in developing natural and synthetic indolyl analogs, highlighting their antiproliferative activities against various cancer types over the past five years. These analogs are categorized based on their efficacy against common cancer types, supported by biochemical assays demonstrating their antiproliferative properties. In this review, emphasis is placed on elucidating the mechanisms of action of these compounds. Given the limitations of conventional cancer therapies, developing targeted therapeutics with enhanced selectivity and reduced side effects remains a critical focus in oncological research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara M. Hassan
- Biotechnology Department, Faculty of Science, Cairo University, Giza 12613, Egypt
| | - Alyaa Farid
- Biotechnology Department, Faculty of Science, Cairo University, Giza 12613, Egypt
| | - Siva S. Panda
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Augusta University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Augusta University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
| | - Mohamed S. Bekheit
- Department of Pesticide Chemistry, National Research Centre, Dokki, Giza 12622, Egypt;
| | - Holden Dinkins
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Augusta University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
| | - Walid Fayad
- Drug Bioassay-Cell Culture Laboratory, Pharmacognosy Department, National Research Centre, Dokki, Giza 12622, Egypt
| | - Adel S. Girgis
- Department of Pesticide Chemistry, National Research Centre, Dokki, Giza 12622, Egypt;
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Mecca M, Sichetti M, Giuseffi M, Giglio E, Sabato C, Sanseverino F, Marino G. Synergic Role of Dietary Bioactive Compounds in Breast Cancer Chemoprevention and Combination Therapies. Nutrients 2024; 16:1883. [PMID: 38931238 PMCID: PMC11206589 DOI: 10.3390/nu16121883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2024] [Revised: 06/03/2024] [Accepted: 06/07/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Breast cancer is the most common tumor in women. Chemotherapy is the gold standard for cancer treatment; however, severe side effects and tumor resistance are the major obstacles to chemotherapy success. Numerous dietary components and phytochemicals have been found to inhibit the molecular and signaling pathways associated with different stages of breast cancer development. In particular, this review is focused on the antitumor effects of PUFAs, dietary enzymes, and glucosinolates against breast cancer. The major databases were consulted to search in vitro and preclinical studies; only those with solid scientific evidence and reporting protective effects on breast cancer treatment were included. A consistent number of studies highlighted that dietary components and phytochemicals can have remarkable therapeutic effects as single agents or in combination with other anticancer agents, administered at different concentrations and via different routes of administration. These provide a natural strategy for chemoprevention, reduce the risk of breast cancer recurrence, impair cell proliferation and viability, and induce apoptosis. Some of these bioactive compounds of dietary origin, however, show poor solubility and low bioavailability; hence, encapsulation in nanoformulations are promising tools able to increase clinical efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marisabel Mecca
- Laboratory of Preclinical and Translational Research, Centro di Riferimento Oncologico della Basilicata (IRCCS-CROB), 85028 Rionero in Vulture, Italy; (M.G.); (E.G.); (C.S.)
| | - Marzia Sichetti
- Laboratory of Preclinical and Translational Research, Centro di Riferimento Oncologico della Basilicata (IRCCS-CROB), 85028 Rionero in Vulture, Italy; (M.G.); (E.G.); (C.S.)
| | - Martina Giuseffi
- Laboratory of Preclinical and Translational Research, Centro di Riferimento Oncologico della Basilicata (IRCCS-CROB), 85028 Rionero in Vulture, Italy; (M.G.); (E.G.); (C.S.)
| | - Eugenia Giglio
- Laboratory of Preclinical and Translational Research, Centro di Riferimento Oncologico della Basilicata (IRCCS-CROB), 85028 Rionero in Vulture, Italy; (M.G.); (E.G.); (C.S.)
| | - Claudia Sabato
- Laboratory of Preclinical and Translational Research, Centro di Riferimento Oncologico della Basilicata (IRCCS-CROB), 85028 Rionero in Vulture, Italy; (M.G.); (E.G.); (C.S.)
| | - Francesca Sanseverino
- Unit of Gynecologic Oncology, Centro di Riferimento Oncologico della Basilicata (IRCCS-CROB), 85028 Rionero in Vulture, Italy;
| | - Graziella Marino
- Unit of Breast Cancer, Centro di Riferimento Oncologico della Basilicata (IRCCS-CROB), 85028 Rionero in Vulture, Italy;
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Chen Q, Jiang C, Li H. Indole-3-Carbinol Promotes Apoptosis and Inhibits the Metastasis of Esophageal Squamous Cell Carcinoma by Downregulating the Wnt/β-Catenin Signaling Pathway. Nutr Cancer 2024; 76:543-551. [PMID: 38588526 DOI: 10.1080/01635581.2024.2337159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2023] [Accepted: 03/25/2024] [Indexed: 04/10/2024]
Abstract
The incidence and mortality rates of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) have been significantly increasing in China. Indole-3-carbinol (I3C), a naturally occurring component in cruciferous vegetables, is an effective cancer therapy. Yet, its effect and action mechanism in ESCC are still not fully understood. This study explored the role of I3C in ESCC in vitro and in vivo by focusing on the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway. MTT and flow cytometry were used to assess cell viability and apoptosis in EC18 and TE1 cells, while wound healing and transwell assays were used to investigate cell migration and invasion in vitro. Expression of β-catenin, c-myc, and cyclin D1 was determined by Western blot; LiCl (an agonist of the canonical Wnt signaling that inhibits GSK3β activity) was used to assess the role of I3C on the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway. For in vivo experiments, nude BALB/c mice bearing EC18 xenografts were treated with I3C and/or LiCl. I3C promoted ESCC apoptosis and inhibited cell migration and invasion by downregulating β-catenin, c-myc, and cyclin D1 in vitro and decreased the tumor growth in vivo; this process was reversed by LiCl treatment. In summary, I3C inhibits ESCC malignant behavior by suppressing the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway, thus deeming it a promising drug for ESCC treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiao Chen
- Department of Nutrition, Third Medical Center of PLA General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Congbo Jiang
- Beiqing Road Outpatient Department, Jingbei Medical District of PLA General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Hui Li
- Department of Nutrition, Third Medical Center of PLA General Hospital, Beijing, China
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Chuang YT, Yen CY, Shiau JP, Chang FR, Duh CY, Sung PJ, Chen KL, Tsai YH, Tang JY, Jeng JH, Sheu JH, Chang HW. Demethoxymurrapanine, an indole-naphthoquinone alkaloid, inhibits the proliferation of oral cancer cells without major side effects on normal cells. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2024; 39:1221-1234. [PMID: 37921086 DOI: 10.1002/tox.24002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2023] [Revised: 09/23/2023] [Accepted: 10/07/2023] [Indexed: 11/04/2023]
Abstract
Antioral cancer drugs need a greater antiproliferative impact on cancer than on normal cells. Demethoxymurrapanine (DEMU) inhibits proliferation in several cancer cells, but an in-depth investigation was necessary. This study evaluated the proliferation-modulating effects of DEMU, focusing on oral cancer and normal cells. DEMU (0, 2, 3, and 4 μg/mL) at 48 h treatments inhibited the proliferation of oral cancer cells (the cell viability (%) for Ca9-22 cells was 100.0 ± 2.2, 75.4 ± 5.6, 26.0 ± 3.8, and 15.4 ± 1.4, and for CAL 27 cells was 100.0 ± 9.4, 77.2 ± 5.9, 57.4 ± 10.7, and 27.1 ± 1.1) more strongly than that of normal cells (the cell viability (%) for S-G cells was 100.0 ± 6.6, 91.0 ± 4.6, 95.0 ± 2.6, and 95.8 ± 5.5), although this was blocked by the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine. The presence of oxidative stress was evidenced by the increase of reactive oxygen species and mitochondrial superoxide and the downregulation of the cellular antioxidant glutathione in oral cancer cells, but these changes were minor in normal cells. DEMU also caused greater induction of the subG1 phase, extrinsic and intrinsic apoptosis (annexin V and caspases 3, 8, and 9), and DNA damage (γH2AX and 8-hydroxy-2-deoxyguanosine) in oral cancer than in normal cells. N-acetylcysteine attenuated all these DEMU-induced changes. Together, these data demonstrate the preferential antiproliferative function of DEMU in oral cancer cells, with the preferential induction of oxidative stress, apoptosis, and DNA damage in these cancer cells, and low cytotoxicity toward normal cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ya-Ting Chuang
- Department of Biomedical Science and Environmental Biology, PhD Program in Life Sciences, College of Life Science, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Ching-Yu Yen
- School of Dentistry, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Chi-Mei Medical Center, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Jun-Ping Shiau
- Division of Breast Oncology and Surgery, Department of Surgery, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Fang-Rong Chang
- Graduate Institute of Natural Products, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Chang-Yih Duh
- Department of Marine Biotechnology and Resources, National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Ping-Jyun Sung
- Department of Marine Biotechnology and Resources, National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- National Museum of Marine Biology and Aquarium, Pingtung, Taiwan
| | - Kuan-Liang Chen
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Chi-Mei Medical Center, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Hong Tsai
- Department of Pharmacy and Master Program, College of Pharmacy and Health Care, Tajen University, Pingtung, Taiwan
| | - Jen-Yang Tang
- School of Post-Baccalaureate Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Jiiang-Huei Jeng
- School of Dentistry, College of Dental Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- Department of Dentistry, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- Department of Dentistry, National Taiwan University Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Jyh-Horng Sheu
- Department of Marine Biotechnology and Resources, National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- Department of Medical Research, China Medical University Hospital, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Hsueh-Wei Chang
- Department of Biomedical Science and Environmental Biology, PhD Program in Life Sciences, College of Life Science, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- Department of Medical Research, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- Center for Cancer Research, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
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He M, Yasin K, Yu S, Li J, Xia L. Total Flavonoids in Artemisia absinthium L. and Evaluation of Its Anticancer Activity. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:16348. [PMID: 38003540 PMCID: PMC10671751 DOI: 10.3390/ijms242216348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2023] [Revised: 11/07/2023] [Accepted: 11/10/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
To overcome the shortcomings of traditional extraction methods, such as long extraction time and low efficiency, and considering the low content and high complexity of total flavonoids in Artemisia absinthium L., in this experiment, we adopted ultrasound-assisted enzymatic hydrolysis to improve the yield of total flavonoids, and combined this with molecular docking and network pharmacology to predict its core constituent targets, so as to evaluate its antitumor activity. The content of total flavonoids in Artemisia absinthium L. reached 3.80 ± 0.13%, and the main components included Astragalin, Cynaroside, Ononin, Rutin, Kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside, Diosmetin, Isorhamnetin, and Luteolin. Cynaroside and Astragalin exert their cervical cancer inhibitory functions by regulating several signaling proteins (e.g., EGFR, STAT3, CCND1, IGFIR, ESR1). Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analysis showed that the anticancer activity of both compounds was associated with the ErbB signaling pathway and FoxO signaling pathway. MTT results showed that total flavonoids of Artemisia absinthium L. and its active components (Cynaroside and Astragalin) significantly inhibited the growth of HeLa cells in a concentration-dependent manner with IC50 of 396.0 ± 54.2 μg/mL and 449.0 ± 54.8 μg/mL, respectively. Furthermore, its active components can mediate apoptosis by inducing the accumulation of ROS.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Jinyao Li
- Xinjiang Key Laboratory of Biological Resources and Genetic Engineering, College of Life Science and Technology, Xinjiang University, Urumqi 830017, China; (M.H.); (K.Y.); (S.Y.)
| | - Lijie Xia
- Xinjiang Key Laboratory of Biological Resources and Genetic Engineering, College of Life Science and Technology, Xinjiang University, Urumqi 830017, China; (M.H.); (K.Y.); (S.Y.)
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Choudhary N, Bawari S, Burcher JT, Sinha D, Tewari D, Bishayee A. Targeting Cell Signaling Pathways in Lung Cancer by Bioactive Phytocompounds. Cancers (Basel) 2023; 15:3980. [PMID: 37568796 PMCID: PMC10417502 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15153980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2023] [Revised: 07/29/2023] [Accepted: 07/31/2023] [Indexed: 08/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Lung cancer is a heterogeneous group of malignancies with high incidence worldwide. It is the most frequently occurring cancer in men and the second most common in women. Due to its frequent diagnosis and variable response to treatment, lung cancer was reported as the top cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide in 2020. Many aberrant signaling cascades are implicated in the pathogenesis of lung cancer, including those involved in apoptosis (B cell lymphoma protein, Bcl-2-associated X protein, first apoptosis signal ligand), growth inhibition (tumor suppressor protein or gene and serine/threonine kinase 11), and growth promotion (epidermal growth factor receptor/proto-oncogenes/phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase). Accordingly, these pathways and their signaling molecules have become promising targets for chemopreventive and chemotherapeutic agents. Recent research provides compelling evidence for the use of plant-based compounds, known collectively as phytochemicals, as anticancer agents. This review discusses major contributing signaling pathways involved in the pathophysiology of lung cancer, as well as currently available treatments and prospective drug candidates. The anticancer potential of naturally occurring bioactive compounds in the context of lung cancer is also discussed, with critical analysis of their mechanistic actions presented by preclinical and clinical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neeraj Choudhary
- Department of Pharmacognosy, GNA School of Pharmacy, GNA University, Phagwara 144 401, India
| | - Sweta Bawari
- Amity Institute of Pharmacy, Amity University, Noida 201 301, India
| | - Jack T. Burcher
- College of Osteopathic Medicine, Lake Erie College of Osteopathic Medicine, Bradenton, FL 34211, USA
| | - Dona Sinha
- Department of Receptor Biology and Tumor Metastasis, Chittaranjan National Cancer Institute, Kolkata 700 026, India
| | - Devesh Tewari
- Department of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Delhi Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research University, New Delhi 110 017, India
| | - Anupam Bishayee
- College of Osteopathic Medicine, Lake Erie College of Osteopathic Medicine, Bradenton, FL 34211, USA
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Guilbeau A, Majumder R. Systemic Review of Clot Retraction Modulators. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:10602. [PMID: 37445780 PMCID: PMC10341984 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241310602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2023] [Revised: 06/10/2023] [Accepted: 06/13/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Through a process termed clot retraction, platelets cause thrombi to shrink and become more stable. After platelets are activated via inside-out signaling, glycoprotein αIIbβIII binds to fibrinogen and initiates a cascade of intracellular signaling that ends in actin remodeling, which causes the platelet to change its shape. Clot retraction is also important for wound healing. Although the detailed molecular biology of clot retraction is only partially understood, various substances and physiological conditions modulate clot retraction. In this review, we describe some of the current literature pertaining to clot retraction modulators. In addition, we discuss compounds from Cudrania trucuspidata, Arctium lappa, and Panax ginseng that diminish clot retraction and have numerous other health benefits. Caffeic acid and diindolylmethane, both common in plants and vegetables, likewise reduce clot retraction, as do all-trans retinoic acid (a vitamin A derivative), two MAP4K inhibitors, and the chemotherapeutic drug Dasatinib. Conversely, the endogenous anticoagulant Protein S (PS) and the matricellular protein secreted modular calcium-binding protein 1 (SMOC1) both enhance clot retraction. Most studies aiming to identify mechanisms of clot retraction modulators have focused on the increased phosphorylation of vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein and inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate receptor I and the decreased phosphorylation of various phospholipases (e.g., phospholipase A2 (PLA2) and phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase Cγ2 (PLCγ2), c-Jun N-terminal kinase, and (PI3Ks). One study focused on the decreased phosphorylation of Sarcoma Family Kinases (SFK), and others have focused on increased cAMP levels and the downregulation of inflammatory markers such as thromboxanes, including thromboxane A2 (TXA2) and thromboxane B2 (TXB2); prostaglandin A2 (PGE2); reactive oxygen species (ROS); and cyclooxygenase (COX) enzyme activity. Additionally, pregnancy, fibrinolysis, and the autoimmune condition systemic lupus erythematosus all seem to affect, or at least have some relation with, clot retraction. All the clot retraction modulators need in-depth study to explain these effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alaina Guilbeau
- LSUHSC School of Medicine, Public University, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA;
| | - Rinku Majumder
- Department of Interdisciplinary Oncology, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA
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Nagia M, Morgan I, Gamel MA, Farag MA. Maximizing the value of indole-3-carbinol, from its distribution in dietary sources, health effects, metabolism, extraction, and analysis in food and biofluids. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2023:1-22. [PMID: 37051943 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2023.2197065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/14/2023]
Abstract
Indole-3-carbinol (I3C) is a major dietary component produced in Brassica vegetables from glucosinolates (GLS) upon herbivores' attack. The compound is gaining increasing interest due to its anticancer activity. However, reports about improving its level in plants or other sources are still rare. Unfortunately, I3C is unstable in acidic media and tends to polymerize rendering its extraction and detection challenging. This review presents a multifaceted overview of I3C regarding its natural occurrence, biosynthesis, isolation, and extraction procedure from dietary sources, and optimization for the best recovery yield. Further, an overview is presented on its metabolism and biotransformation inside the body to account for its health benefits and factors to ensure the best metabolic yield. Compile of the different analytical approaches for I3C analysis in dietary sources is presented for the first time, together with approaches for its detection and its metabolism in body fluids for proof of efficacy. Lastly, the chemopreventive effects of I3C and the underlying action mechanisms are summarized. Optimizing the yield and methods for the detection of I3C will assist for its incorporation as a nutraceutical or adjuvant in cancer treatment programs. Highlighting the complete biosynthetic pathway and factors involved in I3C production will aid for its future biotechnological production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed Nagia
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Leibniz Institute of Plant Biochemistry, Halle (Saale), Germany
- Department of Chemistry of Natural Compounds, Pharmaceutical and Drug Industries Research Institute, National Research Center, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Ibrahim Morgan
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Leibniz Institute of Plant Biochemistry, Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Mirette A Gamel
- Pharmacognosy Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Mohamed A Farag
- Pharmacognosy Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
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Amarakoon D, Lee WJ, Tamia G, Lee SH. Indole-3-Carbinol: Occurrence, Health-Beneficial Properties, and Cellular/Molecular Mechanisms. Annu Rev Food Sci Technol 2023; 14:347-366. [PMID: 36972159 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-food-060721-025531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/29/2023]
Abstract
Indole-3-carbinol (I3C) is a bioactive phytochemical abundant in cruciferous vegetables. One of its main in vivo metabolites is 3,3'-diindolylmethane (DIM), formed by the condensation of two molecules of I3C. Both I3C and DIM alter multiple signaling pathways and related molecules controlling diverse cellular events, including oxidation, inflammation, proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, angiogenesis, and immunity. There is a growing body of evidence from both in vitro and in vivo models that these compounds possess strong potential to prevent several forms of chronic disease such as inflammation, obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, cancer, hypertension, neurodegenerative diseases, and osteoporosis. This article reviews current knowledge of the occurrence of I3C in nature and foods, along with the beneficial effects of I3C and DIM concerning prevention and treatment of human chronic diseases, focusing on preclinical studies and their mechanisms of action at cellular and molecular levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Darshika Amarakoon
- Department of Nutrition and Food Science, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, USA;
| | - Wu-Joo Lee
- Department of Nutrition and Food Science, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, USA;
| | - Gillian Tamia
- Department of Nutrition and Food Science, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, USA;
| | - Seong-Ho Lee
- Department of Nutrition and Food Science, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, USA;
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Singh AA, Jo SH, Kiddane AT, Niyonizigiye I, Kim GD. Indole-3-carbinol induces apoptosis in AGS cancer cells via mitochondrial pathway. Chem Biol Drug Des 2023; 101:1367-1381. [PMID: 36798994 DOI: 10.1111/cbdd.14219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2022] [Revised: 01/27/2023] [Accepted: 02/08/2023] [Indexed: 02/18/2023]
Abstract
Indole-3-carbinol is produced from the cruciferous vegetables and broadly investigated for their various biological effects in in-vitro and in-vivo aspects. However, the anticancer activity of I3C and its molecular mechanisms have not been investigated in human adeno gastro carcinoma (AGS) cells. In our study of AGS cells, nuclear condensation was observed by 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) staining, cell death was confirmed by a cell viability assay, and fragmented DNA was observed at the IC50 dose by a DNA fragmentation assay. Apoptosis was evaluated by the qPCR technique. Treatment of the AGS cells with I3C at different concentrations has drastically decreased cell proliferation and differentiation. By releasing cytochrome-c from mitochondria in the intrinsic pathway, I3C prevents the multiplication of AGS cells and initiates apoptosis. The WST-1 assay result showed that I3C treatment against AGS cells had considerably reduced the viability of the cells. Furthermore, RT-qPCR showed the fold change among the expressed proteins compared with reference gene β-actin. Molecular docking revealed that I3C showed a strong binding affinity for the apoptotic protein 3DCY. The results show the caspase group of proteins contribute to the core of apoptotic machinery. I3C and its metabolites target a variety of components of cell-cycle control via distinct signaling pathways in light of the rapid development of tumors and oncogenesis. The translational significance of I3C and its metabolites in cancer is highlighted by their wide range of antitumor activity and low toxicity. Furthermore, the novel prodrug I3C, which has overlapping underlying mechanisms, could encourage new strategies to decrease oncogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alka Ashok Singh
- Laboratory of Cell Signaling, Department of Microbiology, College of Natural Science, Pukyong National University, Busan, Korea
| | - Sung-Han Jo
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Natural Science, Pukyong National University, Busan, Korea
| | - Anley Teferra Kiddane
- Laboratory of Cell Signaling, Department of Microbiology, College of Natural Science, Pukyong National University, Busan, Korea
| | - Irvine Niyonizigiye
- Laboratory of Cell Signaling, Department of Microbiology, College of Natural Science, Pukyong National University, Busan, Korea
| | - Gun-Do Kim
- Laboratory of Cell Signaling, Department of Microbiology, College of Natural Science, Pukyong National University, Busan, Korea
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Zhang S, Funahashi Y, Tanaka S, Okubo T, Thapa J, Nakamura S, Higashi H, Yamaguchi H. Chlamydia trachomatis relies on the scavenger role of aryl hydrocarbon receptor with detyrosinated tubulin for its intracellular growth, but this is impaired by excess indole. Microbes Infect 2023; 25:105097. [PMID: 36608767 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2022.105097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2022] [Revised: 12/29/2022] [Accepted: 12/29/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Although IFN-γ depletes tryptophan (Trp) as a defense against intracellular Chlamydia trachomatis (Ct) infected to hypoxic vagina, the presence of indole, a precursor of Trp, enables Ct to infect IFN-γ-exposed culture cells. Meanwhile, Trp-derived indole derivatives interact the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), which is a ligand-dependent transcription factor involved in the cellular homeostasis with tubulin dynamics. Here, the amounts of IFN-γ and indole in cervical swabs with known Ct infection status were measured, and Ct growth in the presence of indole was determined from the perspective of the AhR axis under hypoxia. A positive correlation between the amounts of IFN-γ and indole was found, and both of these amounts were lower in Ct-positive swabs than in Ct-negative ones. Indole as well as other AhR ligands inhibited Ct growth, especially under normoxia. Ct prompted the expression of detyrosinated tubulin (dTTub), but indole inhibited it. Indole did not stimulate the translocation of AhR to nucleus, and it blocked AhR activation in AhR-reporter cells. Ct growth was reduced more effectively under normoxia in AhR-knockdown cells, an effect that was enhanced by indole, which in turn diminished dTTub. Thus, Ct growth relies on the scavenger role of cytosolic AhR responsible for promoting dTTub expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saicheng Zhang
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, North-12, West-5, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-0812, Japan.
| | - Yuki Funahashi
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, North-12, West-5, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-0812, Japan.
| | - Satoho Tanaka
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, North-12, West-5, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-0812, Japan.
| | - Torahiko Okubo
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, North-12, West-5, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-0812, Japan.
| | - Jeewan Thapa
- Division of Bioresources, International Institute for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, North-20, West-10, Kita-ku, Sapporo 001-0020, Japan.
| | - Shinji Nakamura
- Division of Biomedical Imaging Research, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8421, Japan; Division of Ultrastructural Research, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-1-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8421, Japan.
| | - Hideaki Higashi
- Division of Infection and Immunity, International Institute for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, North-20, West-10, Kita-ku, Sapporo 001-0020, Japan.
| | - Hiroyuki Yamaguchi
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, Hokkaido University, North-12, West-5, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-0812, Japan.
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12
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Qin R, You FM, Zhao Q, Xie X, Peng C, Zhan G, Han B. Naturally derived indole alkaloids targeting regulated cell death (RCD) for cancer therapy: from molecular mechanisms to potential therapeutic targets. J Hematol Oncol 2022; 15:133. [PMID: 36104717 PMCID: PMC9471064 DOI: 10.1186/s13045-022-01350-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2022] [Accepted: 09/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Regulated cell death (RCD) is a critical and active process that is controlled by specific signal transduction pathways and can be regulated by genetic signals or drug interventions. Meanwhile, RCD is closely related to the occurrence and therapy of multiple human cancers. Generally, RCD subroutines are the key signals of tumorigenesis, which are contributed to our better understanding of cancer pathogenesis and therapeutics. Indole alkaloids derived from natural sources are well defined for their outstanding biological and pharmacological properties, like vincristine, vinblastine, staurosporine, indirubin, and 3,3′-diindolylmethane, which are currently used in the clinic or under clinical assessment. Moreover, such compounds play a significant role in discovering novel anticancer agents. Thus, here we systemically summarized recent advances in indole alkaloids as anticancer agents by targeting different RCD subroutines, including the classical apoptosis and autophagic cell death signaling pathways as well as the crucial signaling pathways of other RCD subroutines, such as ferroptosis, mitotic catastrophe, necroptosis, and anoikis, in cancer. Moreover, we further discussed the cross talk between different RCD subroutines mediated by indole alkaloids and the combined strategies of multiple agents (e.g., 3,10-dibromofascaplysin combined with olaparib) to exhibit therapeutic potential against various cancers by regulating RCD subroutines. In short, the information provided in this review on the regulation of cell death by indole alkaloids against different targets is expected to be beneficial for the design of novel molecules with greater targeting and biological properties, thereby facilitating the development of new strategies for cancer therapy.
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Muhammad N, Usmani D, Tarique M, Naz H, Ashraf M, Raliya R, Tabrez S, Zughaibi TA, Alsaieedi A, Hakeem IJ, Suhail M. The Role of Natural Products and Their Multitargeted Approach to Treat Solid Cancer. Cells 2022; 11:cells11142209. [PMID: 35883653 PMCID: PMC9318484 DOI: 10.3390/cells11142209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2022] [Revised: 07/08/2022] [Accepted: 07/13/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Natural products play a critical role in the discovery and development of numerous drugs for the treatment of various types of cancer. These phytochemicals have demonstrated anti-carcinogenic properties by interfering with the initiation, development, and progression of cancer through altering various mechanisms such as cellular proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, angiogenesis, and metastasis. Treating multifactorial diseases, such as cancer with agents targeting a single target, might lead to limited success and, in many cases, unsatisfactory outcomes. Various epidemiological studies have shown that the steady consumption of fruits and vegetables is intensely associated with a reduced risk of cancer. Since ancient period, plants, herbs, and other natural products have been used as healing agents. Likewise, most of the medicinal ingredients accessible today are originated from the natural resources. Regardless of achievements, developing bioactive compounds and drugs from natural products has remained challenging, in part because of the problem associated with large-scale sequestration and mechanistic understanding. With significant progress in the landscape of cancer therapy and the rising use of cutting-edge technologies, we may have come to a crossroads to review approaches to identify the potential natural products and investigate their therapeutic efficacy. In the present review, we summarize the recent developments in natural products-based cancer research and its application in generating novel systemic strategies with a focus on underlying molecular mechanisms in solid cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naoshad Muhammad
- Department of Radiation Oncology, School of Medicine, Washington University, Saint Louis, MO 63130, USA;
| | | | - Mohammad Tarique
- Department of Child Health, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA;
| | - Huma Naz
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA;
| | - Mohammad Ashraf
- Department of Chemistry, Bundelkhand University Jhansi, Jhansi 284128, Uttar Pradesh, India;
| | - Ramesh Raliya
- IFFCO Nano Biotechnology Research Center, Kalol 382423, Gujarat, India;
| | - Shams Tabrez
- King Fahd Medical Research Center, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia; (S.T.); (T.A.Z.)
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia;
| | - Torki A. Zughaibi
- King Fahd Medical Research Center, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia; (S.T.); (T.A.Z.)
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia;
| | - Ahdab Alsaieedi
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia;
- Vaccines and Immunotherapy Unit, King Fahd Medical Research Center, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
| | - Israa J. Hakeem
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Science, University of Jeddah, Jeddah 21959, Saudi Arabia;
| | - Mohd Suhail
- King Fahd Medical Research Center, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia; (S.T.); (T.A.Z.)
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia;
- Correspondence:
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14
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Anthocyanins in Red Jasmine Rice (Oryza sativa L.) Extracts and Efficacy on Inhibition of Herpes Simplex Virus, Free Radicals and Cancer Cell. Nutrients 2022; 14:nu14091905. [PMID: 35565872 PMCID: PMC9101121 DOI: 10.3390/nu14091905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2022] [Revised: 04/26/2022] [Accepted: 04/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Rice is one of the most important food crops in many countries, with nutritional value and health benefits. In this study, the ethanolic and aqueous extracts of red jasmine rice from Chiang Mai, Thailand were examined for their anthocyanins and phenolic contents. The antioxidant and antiviral activity against herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) and type 2 (HSV-2), as well as anticancer activity, were investigated. The total anthocyanins content of 708.03 ± 11.56 mg Cy-3-glc equivalent/g extract, determined from the ethanolic extract, was higher than the aqueous extract. However, the aqueous extract showed the highest total phenolic compound of 81.91 ± 0.51 mg GAE/g extract. In addition, the ethanolic extract demonstrated higher antioxidant activity than aqueous extract using DPPH, ABTS, and FRAP assays by 28.91 ± 3.26 mg GAE/g extract, 189.45 ± 11.58 mg 24 TEAC/g extract, and 3292.46 ± 259.64 g FeSO4/g extract, respectively. In the antiviral assay, it was found that the ethanolic extract of red jasmine rice could inhibit HSV-1 more effectively than HSV-2 when treated before, during, and after the viral attachment on Vero cells, with 50% effective doses of 227.53 ± 2.41, 189.59 ± 7.76, and 192.62 ± 2.40 µg/mL, respectively. The extract also demonstrated the highest reduction of HSV-1 particles at 4 h after treatment and the inhibition of HSV-1 replication. The ethanolic extract exhibited a higher toxicity level than the aqueous extract, as well as the potential to induce DNA fragmentation by intrinsic and extrinsic apoptosis pathways on the Caco-2 cells. These findings suggest that red jasmine rice extract demonstrates nutritional value and biological activity on HSV, free radicals, and cancer cell inhibition.
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Lim HM, Lee J, Yu SH, Nam MJ, Cha HS, Park K, Yang YH, Jang KY, Park SH. Acetylshikonin, A Novel CYP2J2 Inhibitor, Induces Apoptosis in RCC Cells via FOXO3 Activation and ROS Elevation. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2022; 2022:9139338. [PMID: 35308176 PMCID: PMC8926475 DOI: 10.1155/2022/9139338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2021] [Revised: 12/02/2021] [Accepted: 02/17/2022] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Acetylshikonin is a shikonin derivative originated from Lithospermum erythrorhizon roots that exhibits various biological activities, including granulation tissue formation, promotion of inflammatory effects, and inhibition of angiogenesis. The anticancer effect of acetylshikonin was also investigated in several cancer cells; however, the effect against renal cell carcinoma (RCC) have not yet been studied. In this study, we aimed to investigate the anticarcinogenic mechanism of acetylshikonin in A498 and ACHN, human RCC cell lines. MTT (3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-Diphenyltetrazolium Bromide), cell counting, and colony forming assay showed that acetylshikonin induced cytotoxic and antiproliferative effects in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Cell cycle analysis and annexin V/propidium iodide (PI) double staining assay indicated the increase of subG1 phase and apoptotic rates. Also, DNA fragmentation was observed by using the TUNEL and comet assays. The intracellular ROS level in acetylshikonin-treated RCC was evaluated using DCF-DA. The ROS level was increased and cell viability was decreased in a dose- and time-dependent manner, while those were recovered when cotreated with NAC. Western blotting analysis showed that acetylshikonin treatment increased the expression of FOXO3, cleaved PARP, cleaved caspase-3, -6, -7, -8, -9, γH2AX, Bim, Bax, p21, and p27 while decreased the expressions of CYP2J2, peroxiredoxin, and thioredoxin-1, Bcl-2, and Bcl-xL. Simultaneously, nuclear translocation of FOXO3 and p27 was observed in cytoplasmic and nuclear fractionated western blot analysis. Acetylshikonin was formerly identified as a novel inhibitor of CYP2J2 protein in our previous study and it was evaluated that CYP2J2 was downregulated in acetylshikonin-treated RCC. CYP2J2 siRNA transfection augmented that apoptotic effect of acetylshikonin in A498 and ACHN via up-regulation of FOXO3 expression. In conclusion, we showed that the apoptotic potential of acetylshikonin against RCC is mediated via increase of intracellular ROS level, activation of FOXO3, and inhibition of CYP2J2 expressions. This study offers that acetylshikonin may be a considerable alternative therapeutic option for RCC treatment by targeting FOXO3 and CYP2J2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heui Min Lim
- Department of Biological Science, Gachon University, Seongnam 13120, Republic of Korea
| | - Jongsung Lee
- Department of Integrative Biotechnology, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Seon Hak Yu
- Department of Bio and Chemical Engineering, Hongik University, Sejong 30016, Republic of Korea
| | - Myeong Jin Nam
- Department of Biological Science, Gachon University, Seongnam 13120, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyo Sun Cha
- Department of Biological Science, Gachon University, Seongnam 13120, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyungmoon Park
- Department of Bio and Chemical Engineering, Hongik University, Sejong 30016, Republic of Korea
| | - Yung-Hun Yang
- Department of Biological Engineering, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyu Yun Jang
- Department of Pathology, Jeonbuk National University Medical School, Jeonju 54896, Republic of Korea
- Research Institute of Clinical Medicine of Jeonbuk National University, Jeonju 54896, Republic of Korea
- Biomedical Research Institute of Jeonbuk National University Hospital, Jeonju 54896, Republic of Korea
| | - See-Hyoung Park
- Department of Bio and Chemical Engineering, Hongik University, Sejong 30016, Republic of Korea
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16
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Lee HK, Lim HM, Park SH, Nam MJ. Knockout of Hepatocyte Growth Factor by CRISPR/Cas9 System Induces Apoptosis in Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cells. J Pers Med 2021; 11:jpm11100983. [PMID: 34683124 PMCID: PMC8540514 DOI: 10.3390/jpm11100983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2021] [Revised: 09/25/2021] [Accepted: 09/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: CRISPR/Cas9 system is a prokaryotic adaptive immune response system that uses noncoding RNAs to guide the Cas9 nuclease to induce site-specific DNA cleavage. Hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) is a well-known growth factor that plays a crucial role in cell growth and organ development. According to recent studies, it has been reported that HGF promoted growth of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells. Here, we investigated the apoptotic effects in HCC cells. Methods: Crispr-HGF plasmid was constructed using GeneArt CRISPR Nuclease Vector. pMex-HGF plasmid that targets HGF overexpressing gene were designed with pMex-neo plasmid. We performed real time-polymerase chain reaction to measure the expression of HGF mRNA. We performed cell counting assay and colony formation assay to evaluate cell proliferation. We also carried out migration assay and invasion assay to reveal the inhibitory effects of Crispr-HGF in HCC cells. Furthermore, we performed cell cycle analysis to detect transfection of Crispr-HGF induced cell cycle arrest. Collectively, we performed annexin V/PI staining assay and Western blot assay. Results: In Crispr-HGF-transfected group, the mRNA expression levels of HGF were markedly downregulated compared to pMex-HGF-transfected group. Moreover, Crispr-HGF inhibited cell viability in HCC cells. We detected that wound area and invaded cells were suppressed in Crispr-HGF-transfected cells. The results showed that transfection of Crispr-HGF induced cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in HCC cells. Expression of the phosphorylation of mitogen activated protein kinases and c-Met protein was regulated in Crispr-HGF-transfected group. Interestingly, we found that the expression of HGF protein in conditioned media significantly decreased in Crispr-HGF-transfected group. Conclusions: Taken together, we found that inhibition of HGF through transfection of Crispr-HGF suppressed cell proliferation and induced apoptotic effects in HCC Huh7 and Hep3B cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Han Ki Lee
- Department of Biological Science, Gachon University, Seongnam 13120, Korea; (H.K.L.); (H.M.L.)
| | - Heui Min Lim
- Department of Biological Science, Gachon University, Seongnam 13120, Korea; (H.K.L.); (H.M.L.)
| | - See-Hyoung Park
- Department of Bio and Chemical Engineering, Hongik University, Sejong 30016, Korea
- Correspondence: (S.-H.P.); (M.J.N.); Tel.: +82-44-860-2126 (S.-H.P.); +82-31-750-4760 (M.J.N.)
| | - Myeong Jin Nam
- Department of Biological Science, Gachon University, Seongnam 13120, Korea; (H.K.L.); (H.M.L.)
- Correspondence: (S.-H.P.); (M.J.N.); Tel.: +82-44-860-2126 (S.-H.P.); +82-31-750-4760 (M.J.N.)
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17
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Donia T, Gerges MN, Mohamed TM. Anticancer Effects of Combination of Indole-3-Carbinol and Hydroxychloroquine on Ehrlich Ascites Carcinoma via Targeting Autophagy and Apoptosis. Nutr Cancer 2021; 74:1802-1818. [PMID: 34379013 DOI: 10.1080/01635581.2021.1960388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Indole-3-carbinol (I3C) is an active component of cruciferous vegetables which is considered a promising antineoplastic agent. This study aimed to assess I3C antineoplastic activity alone and with hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) on Ehrlich ascites carcinoma (EAC) model. Eighty female mice were divided into six groups wherein all groups except groups I and II received EAC cells (106 cells/mouse i.p.). Group I, served as control; group II served as I3C; group III served as EAC; groups IV and V received I3C (250 mg/kg body weight oral), and HCQ (60 mg/kg body weight i.p.) respectively; GVI received both I3C and HCQ. Antitumor response markers, serum, hepatic and renal biochemical parameters, histopathological changes, as well as autophagy and apoptosis markers in EAC cells were analyzed. The combination of I3C and HCQ showed the best antitumor responses with increased survival time and ameliorated biochemical parameters. Moreover, I3C upregulated LC3B and downregulated p62 gene expression in EAC cells. Furthermore, I3C combined with HCQ induced apoptosis by highly upregulating cleaved caspase-3 and Bax while downregulating Bcl-2 proteins expression in EAC cells in comparison with each drug alone. In conclusion, I3C combined with HCQ exhibited better antitumor activities than each drug alone via targeting autophagy and apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thoria Donia
- Biochemistry Division, Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, Tanta University, Tanta, Egypt
| | - Marian N Gerges
- Biochemistry Division, Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, Tanta University, Tanta, Egypt
| | - Tarek M Mohamed
- Biochemistry Division, Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, Tanta University, Tanta, Egypt
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