Silicone and scleroderma revisited

Allergic manifestations in women with silicone breast implants

INTRODUCTION

Silicone breast implants (SBI) result in immune dysregulation and are associated with autoimmune diseases. Recently, we reported dysregulated levels of IgG autoantibodies directed against G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) of the autonomic nervous system which were linked to the autoimmune dysautonomia in silicone breast implant illness (SBII).

AIMS

We aimed to explore the possible association between allergy with dysregulated IgE autoantibodies directed against GPCRs of the autonomic nervous system in women with SBI.

METHODS

Circulating levels of IgE autoantibodies against GPCRs of the autonomic nervous system (adrenergic, muscarinic, endothelin and angiotensin receptors) have been evaluated in women with SBIs who complained of allergic symptoms, and compared to subjects with SBI without allergic manifestations and to age-matched healthy women without SBI.

RESULTS

We report a significant dysregulation in three circulating autoantibodies: IgE-beta1 adrenergic receptor (B1AR), IgE-alpha 1 adrenergic receptor (A1AR) and IgE-muscarinic acetylcholine receptor type 1 (M1R) autoantibodies in women with SBI who complained of allergic symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

Allergic reactions associated with SBI are not uncommon. Imbalance of circulating levels of IgE autoantibodies against GPCRs of the autonomic nervous system might play a role not only in allergic reactions, but also in other enigmatic aspects of SBII such as autoimmune dysautonomia.

Endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition in systemic sclerosis

Systemic sclerosis (SSc) is an autoimmune disease characterized by significant vascular alterations and multi-organ fibrosis. Microvascular alterations are the first event of SSc and injured endothelial cells (ECs) may transdifferentiate towards myofibroblasts, the cells responsible for fibrosis and collagen deposition. This process is identified as endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EndMT), and understanding of its development is pivotal to identify early pathogenetic events and new therapeutic targets for SSc. In this review, we have highlighted the molecular mechanisms of EndMT and summarize the evidence of the role played by EndMT during the development of progressive fibrosis in SSc, also exploring the possible therapeutic role of its inhibition.

Association of Silicone Breast Implants, Breast Cancer and Anti-RNA Polymerase III Autoantibodies in Systemic Sclerosis: Case-Based Review

Some case reports and small case series of patients with silicone breast implant (SBI) have reported the development of systemic sclerosis (SSc) many years later, despite conflicting evidence of this association in the literature. Recently, patients with SSc and anti-RNA polymerase III antibodies positivity have been associated with previous silicone implants and/or breast cancer, showing clinical features that differ from the classic SSc, such as rapid and diffuse cutaneous involvement and scleroderma renal crisis (SRC). The specific autoimmune reaction is not yet fully understood, although knowledge in this regard is increasing. We describe a case that can support these previous observations, strengthening this association which must be taken into account. Clinicians should be aware of this new clinical entity, given the widespread use of silicone implants.

Chemical exposure-induced systemic fibrosing disorders: Novel insights into systemic sclerosis etiology and pathogenesis

Numerous drugs and chemical substances are capable of inducing exaggerated tissue fibrotic responses. The vast majority of these agents cause localized fibrotic tissue reactions or fibrosis confined to specific organs. Although much less frequent, chemically-induced systemic fibrotic disorders have been described, sometimes occurring as temporally confined outbreaks. These include the Toxic Oil Syndrome (TOS), the Eosinophilia-Myalgia Syndrome (EMS), and Nephrogenic Systemic Fibrosis (NSF). Although each of these disorders displays some unique characteristics, they all share crucial features with Systemic Sclerosis (SSc), the prototypic idiopathic systemic fibrotic disease, including vasculopathy, chronic inflammatory cell infiltration of affected tissues, and cutaneous and visceral tissue fibrosis. The study of the mechanisms and molecular alterations involved in the development of the chemically-induced systemic fibrotic disorders has provided valuable clues that may allow elucidation of SSc etiology and pathogenesis. Here, we review relevant aspects of the TOS, EMS, and NSF epidemic outbreaks of chemically-induced systemic fibrosing disorders that provide strong support to the hypothesis that SSc is caused by a toxic or biological agent that following its internalization by endothelial cells induces in genetically predisposed individuals a series of molecular alterations that result in the development of SSc clinical and pathological alterations.

Autoimmune syndrome induced by adjuvants after breast enhancement with polyacrylamide hydrogel: a study in Poland

Autoimmune syndrome induced by adjuvants (ASIA) is the spectrum of diseases in which the substances considered inert to the body induce autoimmune reactions and inflammation. Some of the biomaterials recently used in plastic surgery, such as silicone or polyacrylamide hydrogel (PAAG) seem to trigger clinical features of ASIA. The aim of this study was to assess the incidence of these features within a group of women after breast augmentation with PAAG. As many as 30 consecutive patients (26–59 years, mean age 39.5) referred to the Clinic of Plastic Surgery after breast enhancement with PAAG were examined. The validated criteria of ASIA syndrome were employed. Descriptive statistics were chosen based on the distribution of variables. The research was approved by the Bioethical Committee of the Centre of Postgraduate Medical Education in Warsaw, Poland. Within the studied group, 50% of patients (n = 15) fulfilled ASIA diagnostic criteria. Apart from local complications, we encountered various general symptoms, among which fever (n = 13, 43.3%), tingling and numbness of upper extremities (n = 10, 33.3%) and chronic fatigue (n = 9, 30%) were the most common. These symptoms were present on an ambulatory visit, before qualification to the operation of hydrogel removal. All patients undergoing surgical PAAG removal (n = 8) declared alleviation or complete resolution of the symptoms. Polyacrylamide hydrogel breast filling, although limiting the invasiveness of the procedure in relation to silicone breast implants, also carries the risk of developing ASIA symptoms. The removal of PAAG may bring improvement in some cases.

Autoimmune/inflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants-ASIA-related to biomaterials: analysis of 45 cases and comprehensive review of the literature

Systemic autoimmune or granulomatous disorders related to biomaterials of human use have rarely been described. The aim of this study was to report cases of autoimmune/inflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants (ASIA) related to biomaterial injections and prostheses, mainly silicone, hyaluronic acid, acrylamides and methacrylate compounds in a Spanish patient cohort. This study is a retrospective analysis of clinical, laboratory, histopathological and follow-up data of 45 cases of patients suffering from late-onset, non-infectious inflammatory/autoimmune disorders related to bioimplants. Late onset was defined as 3 months or more post injection. Data were obtained through a further non-systematic but comprehensive review of the literature. Forty-five cases of late-onset adverse reactions related to biomaterial injections or prostheses were reviewed. All cases had systemic complaints that could be categorised as ASIA. In all but four patients, inflammatory features at the implantation site preceded distant or systemic manifestations. Abnormal blood tests were common. Localised inflammatory nodules and panniculitis in 40/45 (88.88%) evolved into a variety of disorders, viz., primary biliary cirrhosis, Sjögren's syndrome, sarcoidosis, human adjuvant disease, vasculitis, inflammatory bowel syndrome and inflammatory polyradiculopathy. Five (11.11%) cases presented primarily with systemic autoimmune disorders. Biomaterials and prostheses can provoke late-onset systemic autoimmune disorders fulfilling ASIA criteria, or present primarily local/regional inflammatory reactions that may eventually evolve into systemic autoimmune and/or granulomatous disorders which fall under ASIA.

Two hundreds cases of ASIA syndrome following silicone implants: a comparative study of 30 years and a review of current literature

In this study, we compared one hundred patients with autoimmune/inflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants (ASIA) due to silicone implant incompatibility syndrome diagnosed in 2014 in Maastricht, the Netherlands, with one hundred historical patients with adjuvant breast disease diagnosed in the Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, USA, between 1985 and 1992. Similarities and differences between these two cohorts were identified to determine whether the spectrum of silicone-related disease changed during the last 30 years. Patients with complaints possibly due to silicone-filled breast implants were prospectively examined in the Reinaert Clinic, Maastricht, the Netherlands between January 2014 and October 2014. All patients were evaluated for the fulfilment of ASIA criteria. Results were compared to results of the Baylor College cohort and 18 other reviewed historical cohorts. Clinical manifestations between the Maastricht and Baylor College cohorts were comparable. Fatigue was observed in 98 current patients and in 95 historical patients. Arthralgia was observed in 91 versus 81 historical patients. Myalgia was observed in 54 versus 91 patients. Cognitive impairment was observed in 78 versus 81 patients, pyrexia was observed in 64 versus 52 patients, sicca complaints in 73 versus 72 patients and severe neurological manifestations in 20 versus 32 patients. From the 54 patients who underwent removal of their silicone breast implant, 50 % (n = 27) of the patients experienced improvement of complaints after explantation of the implant. Also, in the 18 reviewed historical cohorts, similar clinical manifestations were described. Our findings suggest that no major changes were present in the observed clinical manifestations between the Maastricht and Baylor College cohorts. Also, despite changes in the principal constituents of the silicone implants during the past fifty years, silicone remained an adjuvant that may ‘bleed’ and subsequently may be a chronic stimulus to the immune system resulting in similar clinical manifestations as observed in the Maastricht cohort, the Baylor College cohort and 18 other large cohorts of patients. We therefore conclude that silicone-related disease has not changed during the last 30 years.

ASIA syndrome, calcinosis cutis and chronic kidney disease following silicone injections. A case-based review

An immunologic adjuvant is a substance that enhances the antigen-specific immune response preferably without triggering one on its own. Silicone, a synthetic polymer used for reconstructive and cosmetic purposes, can cause, once injected, local and/or systemic reactions and trigger manifestations of autoimmunity, occasionally leading to an overt autoimmune disease. Siliconosis, calcinosis cutis with hypercalcemia and chronic kidney disease have all been reported in association with silicone injection. Here, we describe a case of autoimmune/auto-inflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants, calcinosis cutis and chronic kidney disease after liquid silicone multiple injections in a young man who underwent a sex reassignment surgery, followed by a review of the literature. To our knowledge, this is the first report describing the concomitance of the three clinical conditions in the same patients. The link between silicone and the immune system is not completely understood yet and requires further reports and investigations with long-term data, in order to identify the main individual and genetical risk factors predisposing to the wide spectrum of the adjuvant-induced responses.

Systemic sclerosis with anti-RNA polymerase III positivity following silicone breast implant rupture: possible role of B-cell depletion and implant removal in the treatment

Despite some case reports and small series of women with silicone breast implants (SBI) developing Systemic Sclerosis (SSc), no clear evidence of an association of SBI with SSc is available. However, SSc is characterized by clinical and immunological heterogeneity and autoantibodies are currently the best markers to stratify this heterogeneity of patients. Therefore, we have reviewed the literature for details of autoantibody characterization in reports of SSc associated with SBI. Moreover, the case of an anti-RNA polymerase III-positive SSc with rapid onset and progression, in which SBI rupture was found is described. This case may support a previous observation suggesting a possible role of SBI rupture as a trigger for anti-RNA polymerase III-positive SSc. This possible causal role may be reinforced by the observation that in our patient, despite immunosuppressive treatment, the disease progressed until SBI were removed, and reduction of anti-RNA polymerase III titer was obtained after rituximab treatment. This result may support data suggesting that B-cell depleting therapy may decrease specific autoantibody level in SSc patients, and that these changes are associated with disease improvement.

Rapidly progressive diffuse systemic sclerosis after local vitamins A, D and E complex injections: literature review and report of two cases

The term autoimmune/autoinflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants (ASIA) or Shoenfeld's syndrome refers to a wide group of immune-mediated diseases triggered by external agents. Several substances, such as vaccine adjuvants, squalene and silicone implants, are implied in the pathogenesis of ASIA syndrome. Treatment and prognosis of this complex condition are not completely known due to lack of good quality evidence. After a brief introductory literature review on ASIA, we report here two cases of patients that developed rapidly progressive systemic sclerosis clinical features after multiple intramuscular local injections of a substance recommended by a non-medical professional called ADE. ADE is an oily vitamin complex for veterinary use, and it was used in these cases for cosmetic muscular definition and enhancement purpose. To our knowledge, this is the first paper to describe the relation between injections of ADE and the development of ASIA with severe systemic sclerosis phenotype. Further investigation is needed to better understand the pathophysiology and to provide the basis for the treatment of this condition.

Association of anti-RNA polymerase III antibody and silicone breast implants in patients with systemic sclerosis

Systemic sclerosis (SSc) is believed to be caused by a complex interplay between genetic factors and environmental influences. Although silicone has been considered to be a candidate of environmental agents, clinical data presented so far fail to show a significant association between silicone breast implant (SBI) and the development of SSc. Because we recently experienced two consecutive SSc patients with anti-RNA polymerase III (RNAP III) antibody who underwent SBI, we here investigated the association of SBI history with the development of SSc positive for anti-RNAP III antibody. Among 262 Japanese SSc patients, of note, the frequency of SBI history was significantly higher in the anti-RNAP III antibody group (16.0% [4/25]) than in the anti-topoisomerase I antibody group (0% [0/87], P < 0.005) and in the anticentromere antibody group (1.2% [2/150], P < 0.005). These results suggest that SBI could influence the development of SSc in a certain subset of patients with anti-RNAP III antibody.

Factors associated with development of gastrointestinal problems in patients with scleroderma: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

Up to 90% of people with scleroderma have gastrointestinal (GI) problems such as constipation, bloating, diarrhea, and malabsorption. These problems significantly impair quality of life. Our objective was to determine the risk factors for gastrointestinal issues in people with scleroderma.

METHODS

We conducted a systematic review of observational studies that report GI problems in patients with scleroderma along with the associated risk factors. We were interested in any GI problem and any risk factor as long as the study included patients diagnosed with scleroderma according to the 1980 or 2013 American College of Rheumatology guideline. We searched the following databases: CINAHL, EMBASE, LILACS, MEDLINE, and Web of Science for relevant articles from June 1884 to May 2014. Two authors independently screened citations and full text articles and extracted data. Discrepancies were resolved by consensus or by consulting a third author. Methodological quality of included studies was assessed using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale.

RESULTS

After removing duplicates, 645 unique citations were identified. A total of three studies, three cross-sectional (n = 64, n = 42, n = 606), were included in this systematic review. Collectively, these three studies explored Helicobacter pylori and smoking status as risk factors. We found conflicting evidence on the role of H. pylori with two studies showing opposite yet statistically significant results. One moderate quality study showed smoking as a risk factor. Key limitations include the small sample sizes of two studies and poor study designs to draw causal links.

CONCLUSIONS

There is insufficient evidence to describe the risk factors for GI problems in patients with scleroderma. Longitudinal observational studies are warranted in patients with scleroderma.

SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION

PROSPERO CRD42014010707.

Silicone implants and lymphoma: The role of inflammation

The risk of hematological malignancies is mainly determined by genetic background, age, sex, race and ethnicity, geographic location, exposure to certain chemicals and radiation; along with the more recently proposed immune factors such as chronic inflammation, immunodeficiencies, autoimmunity, and infections. Paradigmatic examples include the development of lymphoma in Sjögren's syndrome and Hashimoto thyroiditis, gastric MALT lymphoma in Helicobacter pylori infection, or lymphomas associated with infections by Epstein-Barr virus, human herpes virus 8 (HHV 8) and leukemia/lymphoma virus 1 (HTLV-1). A growing number of reports indicates an increased risk of lymphoma, particularly of the anaplastic large cell (ALCL) type. The implants, specifically those used in the past, elicit chronic stimulation of the immune system against the prosthetic material. This is particularly the case in genetically susceptible hosts. We suggest that polyclonal activation may result in monoclonality in those at risk hosts, ultimately leading to lymphoma. We suggest that patients with an inflammatory response against silicone implants be monitored carefully.

Vaccines, adjuvants and autoimmunity

Vaccines and autoimmunity are linked fields. Vaccine efficacy is based on whether host immune response against an antigen can elicit a memory T-cell response over time. Although the described side effects thus far have been mostly transient and acute, vaccines are able to elicit the immune system towards an autoimmune reaction. The diagnosis of a definite autoimmune disease and the occurrence of fatal outcome post-vaccination have been less frequently reported. Since vaccines are given to previously healthy hosts, who may have never developed the disease had they not been immunized, adverse events should be carefully accessed and evaluated even if they represent a limited number of occurrences. In this review of the literature, there is evidence of vaccine-induced autoimmunity and adjuvant-induced autoimmunity in both experimental models as well as human patients. Adjuvants and infectious agents may exert their immune-enhancing effects through various functional activities, encompassed by the adjuvant effect. These mechanisms are shared by different conditions triggered by adjuvants leading to the autoimmune/inflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants (ASIA syndrome). In conclusion, there are several case reports of autoimmune diseases following vaccines, however, due to the limited number of cases, the different classifications of symptoms and the long latency period of the diseases, every attempt for an epidemiological study has so far failed to deliver a connection. Despite this, efforts to unveil the connection between the triggering of the immune system by adjuvants and the development of autoimmune conditions should be undertaken. Vaccinomics is a field that may bring to light novel customized, personalized treatment approaches in the future.

Factors associated with development of gastrointestinal problems in patients with scleroderma: a protocol for a systematic review

BACKGROUND

Scleroderma affects the gastrointestinal (GI) tract in 90% of all cases. Malnutrition, diarrhea, and constipation are some GI complications that can stem from scleroderma, and they contribute considerably to impairment in quality of life. Reports of haphazard clusters of high prevalence suggest that environmental exposure is a risk factor for scleroderma. However, it is largely uncertain whether the GI involvement secondary to scleroderma is influenced by these environmental factors. This study will review the association between GI involvement (unintentional weight loss, choking, early satiety, etc.) and environmental exposure in patients with scleroderma.

METHODS/DESIGN

Any available observational studies that report GI problems in patients with scleroderma along with the associated risk factors will be selected. We will search CINAHL, EMBASE, LILACS, MEDLINE, and Web of Science for relevant articles written in English from June 1884 to May 2014. Identified articles will be screened in duplicate, and full text for selected articles will be retrieved. Data extraction will be done in duplicate on sociodemographic characteristics of participants, diagnosis of scleroderma, diagnosis of risk of GI problem, risk factors reported, etc. Discrepancies will be resolved by consensus or by consulting a third author. We will assess the participants, methods, and intervention effects of included studies for heterogeneity. Any identified clinical or statistical heterogeneity will be explored visually or using the chi-square test. Data will be pooled statistically using the DerSimmonian and Laird random effects method if we have a measure of relative risk and its precision. Our findings will be reported according to the Meta-Analyses and Systematic Review of Observational Studies (MOOSE) guideline.

DISCUSSION

Our findings may help patients with scleroderma and health care professionals in preventing GI morbidity. Knowing that the cost of care for patients with scleroderma increases with more organ involvement, study findings can inform policy developers to identify ways to curb health care costs.

SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION PROSPERO

CRD42014010707.

Tracing environmental markers of autoimmunity: introducing the infectome

We recently introduced the concept of the infectome as a means of studying all infectious factors which contribute to the development of autoimmune disease. It forms the infectious part of the exposome, which collates all environmental factors contributing to the development of disease and studies the sum total of burden which leads to the loss of adaptive mechanisms in the body. These studies complement genome-wide association studies, which establish the genetic predisposition to disease. The infectome is a component which spans the whole life and may begin at the earliest stages right up to the time when the first symptoms manifest, and may thus contribute to the understanding of the pathogenesis of autoimmunity at the prodromal/asymptomatic stages. We provide practical examples and research tools as to how we can investigate disease-specific infectomes, using laboratory approaches employed from projects studying the “immunome” and “microbiome”. It is envisioned that an understanding of the infectome and the environmental factors that affect it will allow for earlier patient-specific intervention by clinicians, through the possible treatment of infectious agents as well as other compounding factors, and hence slowing or preventing disease development.

Autoimmune/inflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants (ASIA) 2013: Unveiling the pathogenic, clinical and diagnostic aspects

In 2011 a new syndrome termed 'ASIA Autoimmune/Inflammatory Syndrome Induced by Adjuvants' was defined pointing to summarize for the first time the spectrum of immune-mediated diseases triggered by an adjuvant stimulus such as chronic exposure to silicone, tetramethylpentadecane, pristane, aluminum and other adjuvants, as well as infectious components, that also may have an adjuvant effect. All these environmental factors have been found to induce autoimmunity by themselves both in animal models and in humans: for instance, silicone was associated with siliconosis, aluminum hydroxide with post-vaccination phenomena and macrophagic myofasciitis syndrome. Several mechanisms have been hypothesized to be involved in the onset of adjuvant-induced autoimmunity; a genetic favorable background plays a key role in the appearance on such vaccine-related diseases and also justifies the rarity of these phenomena. This paper will focus on protean facets which are part of ASIA, focusing on the roles and mechanisms of action of different adjuvants which lead to the autoimmune/inflammatory response. The data herein illustrate the critical role of environmental factors in the induction of autoimmunity. Indeed, it is the interplay of genetic susceptibility and environment that is the major player for the initiation of breach of tolerance.

Autoimmune/inflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants (Shoenfeld's syndrome): clinical and immunological spectrum

An adjuvant is a substance that enhances the antigen-specific immune response, induces the release of inflammatory cytokines, and interacts with Toll-like receptors and the NALP3 inflammasome. The immunological consequence of these actions is to stimulate the innate and adaptive immune response. The activation of the immune system by adjuvants, a desirable effect, could trigger manifestations of autoimmunity or autoimmune disease. Recently, a new syndrome was introduced, autoimmune/inflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants (ASIA), that includes postvaccination phenomena, macrophagic myofasciitis, Gulf War syndrome and siliconosis. This syndrome is characterized by nonspecific and specific manifestations of autoimmune disease. The main substances associated with ASIA are squalene (Gulf War syndrome), aluminum hydroxide (postvaccination phenomena, macrophagic myofasciitis) and silicone with siliconosis. Mineral oil, guaiacol and iodine gadital are also associated with ASIA. The following review describes the wide clinical spectrum and pathogenesis of ASIA including defined autoimmune diseases and nonspecific autoimmune manifestations, as well as the outlook of future research in this field.

What would surgeons like from materials scientists?

Surgery involves the repair, resection, replacement, or improvement of body parts and functions and in numerous ways, surgery should be considered human engineering. There are many areas in which surgical materials could be improved, but surgeons are generally unaware of materials available for use, while materials scientists do not know what surgeons require. This article will review some of the areas where surgeons and materials scientists have interacted in the past and will discuss some of the most pressing problems which remain to be solved. These include better implant materials for hernia repair, breast reconstruction, the treatment of diabetes, vascular stenting and reconstruction, and electrical pacing devices. The combination of tissue engineering and nanomaterials has great potential for application to nearly every aspect of surgery. Tissue engineering will allow cells or artificial organs to be grown for specific uses while nanotechnology will help to ensure maximal biocompatibility. Biosensors will be combined with improved electrodes and pacing devices to control impaired neurological functions.

Chemical and physicochemical properties of the high cohesive silicone gel from Poly Implant Prothèse (PIP) breast prostheses after explantation: a preliminary, comparative analytical investigation

Aim of this work was to gain a deeper insight into the analytical profile of the macromolecular and LMW fractions of polymeric silicones present in breast implants. The study was conducted on silicone gel samples from (i) breast prostheses (Poly Implant Prothèse, PIP) explanted from a patient that needed their therapeutical removal, (ii) from a virgin Mc Ghan 410 MX prosthesis and (iii) from a sample of technical-grade non-cohesive silicone. The gels were analysed using rheological techniques, attenuated total reflectance infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FT-IR), nuclear magnetic resonance ((1)H NMR), gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and flow injection electrospray mass spectrometry (FI-ESI-MS). Our results demonstrate that, compared to the virgin McGhan gel, the silicone present the PIP prostheses lacks a significant part of the cross-linking sites necessary for the high-cohesive properties of the gel, significant amounts of cholesterol have been absorbed from the breast tissue by the silicone material, demonstrating the lack of impermeability of its elastomer shell. The potential implications and consequences of these analytical results are discussed.

Infectome: a platform to trace infectious triggers of autoimmunity

The "exposome" is a term recently used to describe all environmental factors, both exogenous and endogenous, which we are exposed to in a lifetime. It represents an important tool in the study of autoimmunity, complementing classical immunological research tools and cutting-edge genome wide association studies (GWAS). Recently, environmental wide association studies (EWAS) investigated the effect of environment in the development of diseases. Environmental triggers are largely subdivided into infectious and non-infectious agents. In this review, we introduce the concept of the "infectome", which is the part of the exposome referring to the collection of an individual's exposures to infectious agents. The infectome directly relates to geoepidemiological, serological and molecular evidence of the co-occurrence of several infectious agents associated with autoimmune diseases that may provide hints for the triggering factors responsible for the pathogenesis of autoimmunity. We discuss the implications that the investigation of the infectome may have for the understanding of microbial/host interactions in autoimmune diseases with long, pre-clinical phases. It may also contribute to the concept of the human body as a superorganism where the microbiome is part of the whole organism, as can be seen with mitochondria which existed as microbes prior to becoming organelles in eukaryotic cells of multicellular organisms over time. A similar argument can now be made in regard to normal intestinal flora, living in symbiosis within the host. We also provide practical examples as to how we can characterise and measure the totality of a disease-specific infectome, based on the experimental approaches employed from the "immunome" and "microbiome" projects.

Silicon, a Possible Link between Environmental Exposure and Autoimmune Diseases: The Case of Rheumatoid Arthritis

Silicon is one of the most common chemicals on earth. Several compounds such as silica, asbestos, silicone or, nanoparticles are built from tetrahedral units with silicon as the central atom. Despite these, structural similarities, they have rarely been analyzed as a group. These compounds generate significant biological alterations that include immune hyperactivation, production of the reactive species of oxygen and tissue injury. These pathological processes may trigger autoimmune responses and lead to the development of rheumatoid arthritis. Populations at risk include those that constantly work in industrial process, mining, and agriculture as well as those that undergo silicone implants. Herein a review on the main features of these compounds and how they may induce autoimmune responses is presented.

The periprosthetic capsule and connective tissue diseases: a piece in the puzzle of autoimmune/autoinflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants

Breast prostheses have been criticized for being responsible for triggering systemic autoimmune disease. The presence of breast implants causes a natural foreign body reaction characterized by the infiltration of macrophages and T-cells. Using PubMed, Medline and eMedicine, we performed a systematic literature review on the stages of periprosthetic capsule formation and cells involved in order to understand which immunological pathways could be responsible for giving rise to, and the development of, connective tissue disease such as systemic sclerosis. We focused on the relationship between tissue growth factor- β, interleukin (IL)-1, IL-6 and T helper 17 or T regulatory cells, as well as on their effects on the different steps of capsular tissue formation. A disturbance in the modulation of these key cytokines may be responsible, in susceptible individuals, for a perpetuation of the inflammatory reaction which can locally lead to capsular contracture and at the systemic level may contribute to triggering autoimmune diseases.