Management of systemic lupus erythematosus: a systematic literature review informing the 2023 update of the EULAR recommendations

OBJECTIVES

To analyse the new evidence (2018-2022) for the management of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) to inform the 2023 update of the European League Against Rheumatism (EULAR) recommendations.

METHODS

Systematic literature reviews were performed in the Medline and the Cochrane Library databases capturing publications from 1 January 2018 through 31 December 2022, according to the EULAR standardised operating procedures. The research questions focused on five different domains, namely the benefit/harm of SLE treatments, the benefits from the attainment of remission/low disease activity, the risk/benefit from treatment tapering/withdrawal, the management of SLE with antiphospholipid syndrome and the safety of immunisations against varicella zoster virus and SARS-CoV2 infection. A Population, Intervention, Comparison and Outcome framework was used to develop search strings for each research topic.

RESULTS

We identified 439 relevant articles, the majority being observational studies of low or moderate quality. High-quality randomised controlled trials (RCTs) documented the efficacy of the type 1 interferon receptor inhibitor, anifrolumab, in non-renal SLE, and belimumab and voclosporin, a novel calcineurin inhibitor, in lupus nephritis (LN), when compared with standard of care. For the treatment of specific organ manifestations outside LN, a lack of high-quality data was documented. Multiple observational studies confirmed the beneficial effects of attaining clinical remission or low disease activity, reducing the risk for multiple adverse outcomes. Two randomised trials with some concerns regarding risk of bias found higher rates of relapse in patients who discontinued glucocorticoids (GC) or immunosuppressants in SLE and LN, respectively, yet observational cohort studies suggest that treatment withdrawal might be feasible in a subset of patients.

CONCLUSION

Anifrolumab and belimumab achieve better disease control than standard of care in extrarenal SLE, while combination therapies with belimumab and voclosporin attained higher response rates in high-quality RCTs in LN. Remission and low disease activity are associated with favourable long-term outcomes. In patients achieving these targets, GC and immunosuppressive therapy may gradually be tapered. Cite Now.

The presumable effects of hydroxychloroquine and its metabolites in the treatment of systemic lupus erythematosus

OBJECTIVE

Hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) is an essential drug in the treatment of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). This study aimed to detect the concentrations of HCQ and its metabolites from peripheral blood of SLE patients and to investigate the relationship between those concentrations and SLE disease activity.

METHODS

176 SLE patients treated with HCQ were enrolled in this study. The concentrations of HCQ and its metabolites in their peripheral blood were measured by high-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS). Patients' disease activity was evaluated with the systemic lupus erythematosus disease activity index (SLEDAI). The variables between different concentrations or treatments were statistically analyzed. Linear regression was employed to explore relationships between the concentrations of HCQ and its metabolites with the disease activity.

RESULTS

The SLEDAI was lower in patients with higher concentrations of HCQ, desethylhydroxychloroquine (DHCQ), and desethylchloroquine (DCQ) (P = 0.024, P = 0.018, and P = 0.003, respectively). There were no significant differences in SLEDAI and the concentrations of HCQ and its metabolites among groups with different treatments (P > 0.05). After adjusting age, gender, disease duration, HCQ dose adjusted to actual body weight, and glucocorticoid (GC) dose, the SLEDAI was negatively correlated with the concentrations of HCQ, DHCQ, DCQ and bisdesethylchloroquine (BDCQ) (P = 0.007, P = 0.011, P = 0.029, and P = 0.008, respectively). After grouping analysis, in patients treated with HCQ and GC, the SLEDAI was negatively correlated with concentrations of HCQ, DHCQ and BDCQ (P = 0.011, P = 0.035, and P = 0.036, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

The concentrations of HCQ and metabolites were correlated with the SLE disease activity after adjusting possible confounding factors, indicating that HCQ and its metabolites might play certain immunoregulatory roles in SLE treatment. Moreover, GC might have a synergistic effect with HCQ. It is helpful in clinical management and follow-up to monitor the concentrations of HCQ and its metabolites in SLE patients.

Hydroxychloroquine on the Pulmonary Vascular Diseases in Interstitial Lung Disease: Immunologic Effects, and Virus Interplay

To investigate the effects of hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) drug use on the risk of pulmonary vascular disease (PVD) in an interstitial lung disease cohort (ILD cohort, ILD+ virus infection), we retrospectively enrolled the ILD cohort with HCQ (HCQ users, N = 4703) and the ILD cohort without HCQ (non-HCQ users, N = 4703) by time-dependence after propensity score matching. Cox models were used to analyze the risk of PVD. We calculated the adjusted hazard ratios (aHRs) and their 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for PVD after adjusting for sex, age, comorbidities, index date and immunosuppressants, such as steroids, etc. Compared with the HCQ nonusers, in HCQ users, the aHRs (95% CIs) for PVD were (2.24 (1.42, 3.54)), and the women’s aHRs for PVD were (2.54, (1.49, 4.35)). The aHRs based on the days of HCQ use for PVD of 28−30 days, 31−120 days, and >120 days were (1.27 (0.81, 1.99)), (3.00 (1.81, 4.87)) and (3.83 (2.46, 5.97)), respectively. The medium or long-term use of HCQ or young women receiving HCQ were associated with a higher aHR for PVD in the ILD cohort. These findings indicated interplay of the primary immunologic effect of ILD, comorbidities, women, age and virus in the HCQ users.

Self-Reported Symptoms in a Cohort of Rheumatoid Arthritis and Systemic Lupus Erythematosus during the COVID-19 Quarantine Period

Background:

During the first three months of the COVID-19 pandemic in the Philippines, there was a supply shortage of hydroxychloroquine and methotrexate. Limited access to medication and the life changes resulting from the COVID-19 pandemic may predispose patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) or systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) to disease flares.

Objective:

This study aimed to investigate self-reported symptoms of disease flares among patients with rheumatoid arthritis or systemic lupus erythematosus during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Methods:

A total of 512 completed online surveys from patients with SLE or RA were collected. The data included sociodemographic characteristics, self-reported physical symptoms, health service utilization, and availability of hydroxychloroquine and methotrexate.

Results:

Seventy-nine percent of respondents had lupus, while 21% had RA. One-third of the cohort had contact with their attending physician during the two-month quarantine period prior to the survey. Eighty-two percent were prescribed hydroxychloroquine and 23.4% were prescribed methotrexate; but 68.6% and 65%, respectively, had “irregular” intake of these medicines due to unavailability. The current health status was reported as good by 66.2%; 24% had no symptoms during the two-week period prior to the survey. The most common symptoms experienced were joint pain (51%), muscle pain (35%), headache (26.8%), and skin rash (19.1%). Five percent had a combination of these four most common symptoms. Irregular supply of hydroxychloroquine among patients with SLE (n=323) was associated with more frequent occurrence of muscle pain (40.6% vs 27.9%, p=0.03) or rash (27.4% vs 11.7%, p<0.001). Irregular supply of methotrexate among RA patients prescribed hydroxychloroquine and methotrexate (n=36) was associated with more frequent occurrence of joint pains with or without swelling (73.9% vs 38.5%, p=0.04). Irregular supply of hydroxychloroquine was associated with less frequent occurrence of dizziness (0 vs 66.7%, p<0.001) among RA patients (n=18).

Conclusion:

In our cohort of RA and SLE, the majority reported at least one symptom that may indicate disease flare. There was a significant association between the irregular supply of hydroxychloroquine or methotrexate with the presence of muscle pain, rash, or joint pains during the 14-day period prior to the survey.

Adherence to hydroxychloroquine in patients with systemic lupus: Contrasting results and weak correlation between assessment tools

OBJECTIVES

Hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) is an anchor drug in the treatment of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Adherence to HCQ is key for efficacy. Inaccurate evaluation of adherence could lead to non-justified switch to more expensive or less tolerated drugs.

METHODS

Severe non-adherence rate to HCQ was estimated in a sample of SLE patients during a routine visit using blood HCQ concentration<200μg/L. Adherence was assessesd by the Medication Adherence Self-Report Inventory (MASRI)<80/100, 8-item Morisky Medication Adherence Scale (MMAS-8) ≤6/8, Health Care Provider (HCP) visual analog scale (VAS)<80/100. Same procedures were to be repeated during a further routine visit 6 to 12 months later. We described agreement and correlations between tools and compared severely non-adherent patients and others on their characteristics.

RESULTS

The study involved 158 patients (86.1% females) aged 42.2±12.6 years treated with HCQ for 9.6±6.9 years. Blood HCQ concentration (mean±standard deviation) was 1046±662μg/L at visit 1 and 855±577μg/L at visit 2. At visit 1, the non-adherence rate varied from 3.2% (blood HCQ level<200μg/L) to 7.7% (MASRI), 12.4% (HCP-VAS) or 32.5% (MMAS-8). 37.8% of patients met at least one of the definitions of non-adherence. Patients' characteristics including SLE activity, damage and quality of life were similar between severely non-adherent patients and others. Correlations between blood HCQ-concentration and self-questionnaires were weak (r<0.25) and agreement between methods was poor.

CONCLUSION

Blood HCQ concentration<200μg/L reveals severe non-adherence. Combining blood HCQ concentration with MASRI and MMAS-8 may help to better identify non-adherence in SLE. Agreement between methods was poor and correlations with HCQ level and SLE activity were weak.

Hydroxychloroquine Improves the Disease Activity and Allows the Reduction of the Corticosteroid Dose Regardless of Background Treatment in Japanese Patients with Systemic Lupus Erythematosus

Objective Hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) was not approved in Japan until 2015, and its therapeutic potential has not been explored in depth. We evaluated the additional therapeutic effect of HCQ in Japanese patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) on maintenance therapy. Methods Patients with SLE who visited our hospital from 2015 to 2016 and were taking prednisolone (PSL) at <20 mg/day were retrospectively evaluated. All patients were divided into three groups according to their maintenance treatment regimen: PSL + immunosuppressant, PSL alone, and no treatment. We compared the changes in the SLE disease activity index (SLEDAI), PSL dose, and cumulative flare rate between patients who were and were not treated with HCQ. Results Among the 165 patients evaluated, 35 (21.2%) were treated with HCQ. The mean period of observation did not differ markedly between patients who did and did not receive HCQ (p=0.3). The SLEDAI and PSL dose were significantly reduced in patients who received HCQ, regardless of their background treatment regimen. The cumulative flare rate was lower in patients who received HCQ than in those who did not in the PSL + immunosuppressant and no maintenance treatment groups (p=0.03 and 0.05, respectively). Conclusion The addition of HCQ reduced the disease activity and allowed PSL dose reduction, regardless of background treatment, in Japanese patients with SLE.