Bovine papular stomatitis affecting dairy cows and milkers in midwestern Brazil

Pockenvirusinfektionen in der Dermatologie: Poxvirus infections in dermatology - the neglected, the notable, and the notorious

Die Familie Poxviridae umfasst derzeit 22 Gattungen, die Wirbeltiere infizieren können. Humanpathogene Pockenviren gehören den Gattungen Ortho‐, Para‐, Mollusci‐ und Yatapoxvirus an. Bis zur Eradikation der Variola vera im Jahr 1979 waren die Pocken, im Volksmund auch Blattern genannt, eine schwerwiegende Gesundheitsbedrohung für die Bevölkerung. Noch heute sind Dermatologen mit zahlreichen Pockenvirusinfektionen konfrontiert, wie den Bauernhofpocken, die als Zoonosen nach Tierkontakten in ländlichen Gebieten oder nach Massenversammlungen auftreten können. In den Tropen können Erkrankungen durch Tanapox‐ oder Vaccinia‐Viren zu den Differenzialdiagnosen gehören. Dellwarzen sind weltweit verbreitet und werden in bestimmten Fällen als sexuell übertragbare Pockenvirusinfektion angesehen. In jüngster Zeit hatten sich Mpox (Affenpocken) zu einer gesundheitlichen Notlage von internationaler Tragweite entwickelt, die eine rasche Identifizierung und angemessene Behandlung durch Dermatologen und Infektiologen erfordert. Fortschritte und neue Erkenntnisse über Epidemiologie, Diagnose, klinische Manifestationen und Komplikationen sowie Behandlung und Prävention von Pockenvirusinfektionen erfordern ein hohes Maß an Fachwissen und interdisziplinärer Zusammenarbeit in den Bereichen Virologie, Infektiologie und Dermatologie. Dieser CME‐Artikel bietet einen aktualisierten systematischen Überblick, um praktizierende Dermatologen bei der Identifizierung, Differenzialdiagnose und Behandlung klinisch relevanter Pockenvirusinfektionen zu unterstützen.

Poxvirus infections in dermatology - the neglected, the notable, and the notorious

The family Poxviridae currently comprises 22 genera that infect vertebrates. Of these, members of the Ortho-, Para-, Mollusci- and Yatapoxvirus genera have been associated with human diseases of high clinical relevance in dermatology. Historically, smallpox had been a notorious health threat until it was declared eradicated by the World Health Organization in 1979. Today, dermatologists are confronted with a variety of poxviral infections, such as farmyard pox, which occurs as a zoonotic infection after contact with animals. In the tropics, tanapox or vaccinia may be in the differential diagnosis as neglected tropical dermatoses. Molluscum contagiosum virus infection accounts for significant disease burden worldwide and is classified as a sexually transmitted infection in certain scenarios. Recently, mpox (monkeypox) has emerged as a public health emergency of international concern, requiring rapid recognition and appropriate management by dermatologists and infectious disease specialists. Advances and new insights into the epidemiology, diagnosis, clinical manifestations and complications, treatment, and prevention of poxviral infections require a high level of expertise and interdisciplinary skills from healthcare professionals linking virology, infectious diseases, and dermatology. This CME article provides a systematic overview and update to assist the practicing dermatologist in the identification, differential diagnosis, and management of poxviral infections.

The first molecular characterization and phylogenetic analysis of bovine papular stomatitis virus in Iran

Bovine papular stomatitis (BPS) generally is a mild viral disease caused by the Bovine papular stomatitis virus (BPSV) belonging to the genus Parapoxvirus (PPV). This study aimed to perform the first molecular characterization and phylogenetic analysis of BPSV in beef calves in Iran. Clinical examinations were carried out on four beef cattle herds in West Azerbaijan province, which had experienced outbreaks of papular lesions. Fifty swab samples were collected from the papular lesions on the muzzle, lips, and oral cavity of affected calves, and after viral DNA extraction, they were subjected to polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The results of PCR confirmed the presence of BPSV in all calves with clinical symptoms. The partial B2L gene was sequenced based on nucleotides, and phylogenetic analysis was performed using MEGA 11.0.13. The analysis revealed that BPSV isolates from beef calves in Iran formed two clades. Clade 1 exhibited similarities to the isolates from Finland, Japan, and Georgia, while Clade 2 was similar to the Zambian isolates. These findings indicate the presence of genetic diversity and potential variability within the virus population. Further studies with larger sample sizes and diverse geographic regions will increase the resolution of the phylogenetic tree and contribute to a comprehensive understanding of how BPSV circulates in the country.

Parapoxvirus Interleukin-10 Homologues Vary in Their Receptor Binding, Anti-Inflammatory, and Stimulatory Activities

Homologues of interleukin (IL)-10, a pleiotropic immunomodulatory cytokine, have been identified in the Parapoxvirus genus. The first identified, Orf virus (ORFV) IL-10, greatly enhanced infection of its host, exhibiting immune modulatory effects equivalent to human IL-10. IL-10-like genes were then identified in Bovine papular stomatitis virus (BPSV), Pseudocowpox virus (PCPV), Red deerpox virus (RDPV) and Grey sealpox virus (GSPV). This study aimed to produce and characterise recombinant parapoxvirus IL-10s, then quantitatively compare their receptor binding and immunomodulatory activities. Recombinant IL-10s were expressed, purified, then characterised using bioinformatic, biochemical and enzymatic analyses. Anti-inflammatory effects were assessed in lipoteichoic acid-activated THP-1 monocytes, and stimulatory effects in MC/9 mast cells. IL-10 receptor (IL-10R)1 binding was detected in a competitive displacement assay. BPSV IL-10 inhibited production of monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP)-1, IL-8 and IL-1β, induced mast cell proliferation, and bound IL-10R1 similarly to ORFV IL-10. PCPV IL-10 showed reduced MCP-1 inhibition, mast cell proliferation, and IL-10R1 binding. RDPV IL-10 displayed reduced inhibition of IL-8 and MCP-1 production. GSPV IL-10 showed limited inhibition of IL-1β production and stimulation of mast cell proliferation. These findings provide valuable insight into IL-10 receptor interactions, and suggest that the parapoxvirus IL-10s play similar pathogenic roles during infection of their hosts.

Molecular phylogenetic analysis of bovine papular stomatitis viruses detected in Saga, Japan

In this study, we performed a molecular phylogenetic analysis of six bovine papular stomatitis virus (BPSV) field strains detected from Japanese beef calves kept on a farm in Saga prefecture, a southwest part of Japan, from 2017 to 2020. The phylogenetic analysis based on a partial B2L gene (554-nt) showed that these field strains were divided into two lineages, a lineage (A-lineage) constructed by a Saga strain and strains obtained from various regions of Japan and the world, and other lineage (B-lineage) constructed by five Saga strains and strains obtained from France, USA and Iwate prefecture (a north part of Japan). Furthermore, a Saga field strain named BPSV_SAGAbv2 and strains obtained from USA and Iwate prefecture belonged to a sub-lineage blanched from B-lineage. This is the first report elucidating molecular epidemiological characters of field BPSVs obtained from Saga prefecture. The existence of the multiple lineages was thought to be related to a history of calf introduction from various regions of Japan into Saga prefecture.

Co-Infection of Bovine Papular Stomatitis Virus, Rotavirus and Cryptosporidium Spp. in a Calf

Concurrent occurence of bovine papular stomatitis, rotavirus infection and cryptosporidiosis was diagnosed postmortem in a 7-days-old calf from a farm containing 65 calves of different ages. Multifocal papular stomatitis and rumenitis were present on necropsy. While polymerase chain reaction analysis revealed rotavirus and papular stomatitis virus infections; bovine viral diarrhea, foot and mouth disease, bovine papilloma virus and coronavirus could not be detected. Overall; concurrent co-infection with bovine papular stomatitis virus, rotavirus and cryptosporidium spp. was reported for the first time.

An idiopathic upper alimentary tract ulcerative syndrome in weaned dairy calves in Victoria, Australia

An idiopathic clinical syndrome had been described in weaned dairy calves in the state of Victoria, Australia, where affected animals presented with diarrhoea, ill-thrift, enteritis and ulceration of the upper alimentary tract, with occasional oral/nasal ulcers. Between 7 November 2016 and 31 March 2019, 34 Victorian cattle herds were investigated, after each reported five or more weaned calves with diarrhoea and/or ill-thrift, or at least one calf with oral/nasal ulceration. Primary study objectives included the development of a detailed case definition for the clinical syndrome, termed upper alimentary tract ulcerative syndrome (UAUS) and the identification of potential causative virus(es) using metagenomics. A diagnosis of UAUS could not be made based solely on clinical signs and required histopathological assessment of post-mortem samples. Specifically, this included the identification of multifocal to coalescing areas of mucosal epithelial necrosis at all depths of the stratified squamous epithelium of the oesophagus, along with exclusion of bovine viral diarrhoea virus. Based on this case definition, twelve herds were diagnosed with clinical UAUS across the three dairying regions of Victoria, while thirteen were ruled UAUS-negative. The status of the nine remaining herds was unresolved due to a lack of required post-mortem samples. Metatranscriptomic analysis on oral swabs and oesopharyngeal samples from confirmed UAUS cases did not detect a virus common to the cross-sectional sample collection.

Genomic Features and Evolution of the Parapoxvirus during the Past Two Decades

Parapoxvirus (PPV) has been identified in some mammals and poses a great threat to both the livestock production and public health. However, the prevalence and evolution of this virus are still not fully understood. Here, we performed an in silico analysis to investigate the genomic features and evolution of PPVs. We noticed that although there were significant differences of GC contents between orf virus (ORFV) and other three species of PPVs, all PPVs showed almost identical nucleotide bias, that is GC richness. The structural analysis of PPV genomes showed the divergence of different PPV species, which may be due to the specific adaptation to their natural hosts. Additionally, we estimated the phylogenetic diversity of seven different genes of PPV. According to all available sequences, our results suggested that during 2010-2018, ORFV was the dominant virus species under the selective pressure of the optimal gene patterns. Furthermore, we found the substitution rates ranged from 3.56 × 10-5 to 4.21 × 10-4 in different PPV segments, and the PPV VIR gene evolved at the highest substitution rate. In these seven protein-coding regions, purifying selection was the major evolutionary pressure, while the GIF and VIR genes suffered the greatest positive selection pressure. These results may provide useful knowledge on the virus genetic evolution from a new perspective which could help to create prevention and control strategies.

Bovine papular stomatitis virus and pseudocowpox virus coinfection in dairy calves in Japan

Two cases of coinfection with bovine papular stomatitis virus (BPSV) and pseudocowpox virus (PCPV) in dairy calves in Tochigi Prefecture, Japan, are reported. Sequences of BPSV and PCPV were simultaneously detected in the same polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplicons, which were obtained from the DNA of two dairy calves using a pan-parapoxvirus primer set. PCR amplification using BPSV- and PCPV-specific primer sets were able to distinguish between the two viruses in coinfected clinical samples. Based on these data, further studies on the occurrence BPSV/PCPV coinfections in cattle in Japan are warranted.

Poxviruses diagnosed in cattle from Distrito Federal, Brazil (2015-2018)

A retrospective study of officially diagnosed poxvirus infections in cattle in Distrito Federal (DF), Brazil, between 2015 and 2018 was performed. All cases were investigated by the DF Official Veterinary Service. In the most cases, samples of oral, cutaneous (teats, udder) or foot lesions were submitted to molecular diagnosis by PCR. In approximately 70% of the cases, additional samples were also submitted for histopathology. Ninety-three out of 2,467 clinically examined cattle (from 385 farms) presented suggestive and/or compatible lesions with poxviruses. Fifty-two out of these 93 cases were confirmed as poxviruses: 27 vaccinia virus (VACV), 9 pseudocowpox virus (PCPV), 8 bovine papular stomatitis virus (BPSV), 5 coinfection by PCPV and BPSV and 3 unidentified parapoxvirus. The clinical cases were observed in farms with different exploration (beef, dairy or mixed) from 9 out of 30 administrative regions of DF. Gross findings consisted of papules, vesicles, ulcers, scabs and scars and varied of type, severity and affected tissue, according to the detected virus. A single human case was observed associated with a BPSV infection. Histologically, the lesions were very similar, independently of the detected poxvirus, and included mild to moderate, superficial, multifocal inflammatory infiltrate of lymphocytes, plasma cells, macrophages and/or neutrophils, with acanthosis and parakeratotic hyperkeratosis, usually associated with serous content, cellular debris and spongiosis. In the ulcerated lesions, there were focally extensive areas of necrosis with severe infiltrate of neutrophils in the adjacent connective tissue. Few to moderate amount of 4- to 8-µm eosinophilic inclusion bodies were observed in the cytoplasm of keratinocytes in 6 cases (2 of VACV, 2 of PCPV and 2 of PCPV/BPSV coinfection). Data of the current study demonstrate the wide circulation of different poxviruses in cattle from DF.

Detection and first molecular characterization of bovine papular stomatitis virus in dairy calves in Argentina

Bovine papular stomatitis virus (BPSV) is a parapoxvirus associated with papular and erosive lesions on the muzzle, lips, and oral mucosa of cattle. BPSV infection occurs worldwide; however, it has still not been unequivocally diagnosed. The present report describes an outbreak of BPSV infection affecting dairy calves in northwestern Argentina and provides the first molecular characterization of this virus in the country. The disease was detected in a dairy farm, affecting 33 calves between 2 and 20 days of age. The signs included reddish papules, ulcers, and scabby proliferative lesions on muzzle, lips, and oral mucosa. The affected calves resisted to being fed due to severe local pain. Two necropsies were performed; papulas and ulcers were observed in ruminal and omasal mucosa. Histologically, the affected areas of the skin showed acanthosis, spongiosis, and parakeratotic hyperkeratosis with adjacent focally extensive ulcers and multifocal inflammatory infiltrate in the epidermis. Eosinophilic inclusion bodies were detected in the cytoplasm of epithelial cells. DNA extracted from scab samples was analyzed by PCR using pan-parapoxvirus primers for the B2L gene. The sequence analysis revealed 99%, 85%, and 84% similarity with BPSV, Pseudocowpox virus, and Orf virus, respectively. A phylogenetic tree constructed using the B2L sequence showed that the virus clustered with BPSV isolates. Although clinical cases compatible with BSPV infection have been frequently described in Argentina, the present report is the first to identify the agent associated with cattle disease in the country.

Orf virus circulation in cattle in Turkey

Orf virus (ORFV) causes contagious skin disease that mainly affects sheep and goats with zoonotic potential. However, there is not enough information about the association between ORFV and occurrence of skin disease in cattle. The present study describes outbreaks of ORFV infection in cattle in different provinces that are located in the Aegean, Central Anatolian and Mediterranean regions of Turkey. During the months of June and August 2017, vesicular fluid and scab samples were collected from cattle which had proliferative skin lesions. First, presence of lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV) and bovine herpesvirus 2 (BoHV-2, known as the causative agent of pseudo-lumpy skin disease) were investigated by real time PCR and PCR, respectively. Then, samples tested for the presence of parapoxviruses by PCR using primers specific to major envelope protein gene (B2L). Parapoxvirus DNA was detected in investigated samples whereas LSDV and BoHV-2 DNA were not detected. The analysis of the B2L gene sequences revealed that cattle were infected with ORFV. The isolates in the present study shared 100% sequence identity at the nucleotide and amino acid level when compared with previously characterised Turkish field ORFV isolates from goats in 2016. Results of the study show unusual infection of cattle with ORFV, and suggest that ORFV jumps the host species barrier from goats to cattle.

Short communication: Parapoxvirus and Orthopoxvirus coinfection in milk of naturally infected cows

Several studies have shown the occurrence of poxvirus infections associated with exanthematic lesions in cattle from many Brazilian states. Coinfection between viruses belonging to 2 genera, Orthopoxvirus (OPXV) and Parapoxvirus (PPV), was already identified from the lesions of affected cows and humans. The DNA and infectious viral particles of Vaccinia virus, an OPXV, have been detected in milk of naturally and experimentally infected cows. However, to date no reports have described the detection of Pseudocowpox virus, a PPV, in milk. Thus, we investigated the presence of PPV and OPXV in milk samples obtained from dairy cows from a Brazilian region with exanthematic disease outbreaks. From 2011 to 2014, 6 dairy farms with exanthematic disease outbreaks involving dairy cows, calves, and humans were visited. Twelve crusts of cows' teat lesions and 60 milk samples were collected. The crusts and milk samples were analyzed by PCR to detect OPXV or PPV DNA. According to the analyzed crusts, we detected PPV infection in 4 of the 6 visited farms, from which we investigated the PPV contamination in milk. From the 40 milk samples tested, PPV DNA was detected in 12 samples. Of these milk samples, 8 were positive for both PPV and OPXV. This is the first report of PPV DNA detection in milk samples from affected cows, indicating that the virus may be present in milk and potentially contaminating dairy products associated or not with OPXV. In addition to the lesions caused by direct contact, the presence of 2 or more poxvirus species in milk showed that the effect of zoonotic exanthematic diseases on public health and animal husbandry is relevant and cannot be overlooked.

Parapoxvirus Infections in the Country of Georgia: A Case Series

Infections caused by viruses of the parapoxvirus (PPV) genus, including orf and pseudocowpox viruses, are frequently seen in both humans and animals in many regions of the world. These infections are often misdiagnosed or neglected because of the lack of clinician awareness, inadequate diagnostic capacity, and their relatively mild disease presentation, which may result in affected individuals not seeking medical attention. Although PPV infections should be routinely considered in patients with cutaneous lesions, especially in those who have occupational exposure to farm animals, they are often excluded from the differential diagnosis because they are not perceived as serious, resulting in underestimation of the burden of disease. Since 2014, significant enhancements to Georgia's epidemiologic and laboratory capacity have made PPV surveillance and detection possible. In this study, we present information on 27 confirmed cases of PPV infection reported to Georgia's national surveillance system from January 2016 through January 2017.

An unusual presentation of pseudocowpox associated with an outbreak of pustular ulcerative vulvovaginitis in a Swedish dairy herd

Species Pseudocowpox virus (PCPV; family Poxviridae) is known to cause pustular cutaneous disease in cattle. We describe an outbreak of pseudocowpox with an unusual clinical picture in a free-stall dairy herd of ~80 cows. Approximately 90% of the cows had vesicles, erosions, papules, and scabs on the vulva and vaginal mucosa. Histologic analysis of biopsy tissues indicated a primary, although not specified, viral infection. Transmission electron microscopy revealed parapoxvirus particles in both tissue and vesicular materials. Deep sequencing analysis of extracted DNA from swabbed vesicle areas gave a contig of nearly 120,000 nucleotides, matching the PCPV strain VR 634 with 100% identity. Analyses confirmed the absence of other potential causes of pustular vulvovaginitis such as bovine herpesvirus 1 and Ureaplasma diversum. A rolling cow brush was suspected to be the fomite.

Spread of poxviruses in livestock in Brazil associated with cases of double and triple infection

The objective of this work is to describe the distribution of outbreaks of vaccinia virus (VACV), pseudocowpox virus (PCPV), and bovine papular stomatitis virus (BSPV) in Brazil. The Official Laboratory of the Brazilian Ministry of Agriculture received 89 samples from different locations in Brazil in 2015 and 2016 for diagnosis of vesicular and exanthematous disease. Poxvirus coinfections occurred in 11 out of 33 outbreaks, including the first reported triple infection by BPSV, PCPV, and VACV. This occurrence may be associated with the circulation of these viruses in Brazilian cattle.

A Broad-Spectrum Chemokine-Binding Protein of Bovine Papular Stomatitis Virus Inhibits Neutrophil and Monocyte Infiltration in Inflammatory and Wound Models of Mouse Skin

Bovine papular stomatitis virus (BPSV) is a Parapoxvirus that induces acute pustular skin lesions in cattle and is transmissible to humans. Previous studies have shown that BPSV encodes a distinctive chemokine-binding protein (CBP). Chemokines are critically involved in the trafficking of immune cells to sites of inflammation and infected tissue, suggesting that the CBP plays a role in immune evasion by preventing immune cells reaching sites of infection. We hypothesised that the BPSV-CBP binds a wide range of inflammatory chemokines particularly those involved in BPSV skin infection, and inhibits the recruitment of immune cells from the blood into inflamed skin. Molecular analysis of the purified protein revealed that the BPSV-CBP is a homodimeric polypeptide with a MW of 82.4 kDa whilst a comprehensive screen of inflammatory chemokines by surface plasmon resonance showed high-affinity binding to a range of chemokines within the CXC, CC and XC subfamilies. Structural analysis of BPSV-CBP, based on the crystal structure of orf virus CBP, provided a probable explanation for these chemokine specificities at a molecular level. Functional analysis of the BPSV-CBP using transwell migration assays demonstrated that it potently inhibited chemotaxis of murine neutrophils and monocytes in response to CXCL1, CXCL2 as well as CCL2, CCL3 and CCL5 chemokines. In order to examine the effects of CBP in vivo, we used murine skin models to determine its impact on inflammatory cell recruitment such as that observed during BPSV infection. Intradermal injection of BPSV-CBP blocked the influx of neutrophils and monocytes in murine skin in which inflammation was induced with lipopolysaccharide. Furthermore, intradermal injection of BPSV-CBP into injured skin, which more closely mimics BPSV lesions, delayed the influx of neutrophils and reduced the recruitment of MHC-II+ immune cells to the wound bed. Our findings suggest that the CBP could be important in pathogenesis of BPSV infections.

A multiplex PCR for viruses associated with exanthematic and vesicular disease in cattle

Exanthematic and papulo-vesicular lesions in the udder and teats of milking cows are fairly common in some Brazilian dairies, especially those with poor sanitary conditions and hand milking. The orthopoxvirus Vaccinia virus (VACV) and the parapoxviruses Pseudocowpox virus (PCPV) and Bovine popular stomatitis virus (BPSV) have been frequently associated with such conditions. Elsewhere, Bovine herpesvirus 2 (BoHV-2) has also been associated with similar clinical signs. Thus, we herein describe a conventional multiplex PCR designed to detect the genome of these viruses in clinical samples while differentiating among them by amplicon size. For this, primer sets targeting the orthopoxvirus vascular growth factor (amplicon size 292bp), PCPV (374bp) and BSPV (607bp) B2L genes, and the BoHV-2 DNA polymerase gene (138bp) were selected. The chosen primers anneal within the same temperature range and do not interfere with each other during the PCR amplification. PCR conditions were initially standardized for each agent in individual PCR reactions firstly using the target virus as positive control followed by using a mixture of all four virues. Lastly, a multiplex PCR containing the four sets of primers was set up to amplify all four targeted viruses in one reaction. The multiplex PCR was able to detect DNA extracted from cell culture supernatants containing 20 TCID₅₀ of BoHV-2 and 50 TCID₅₀ of VACV. Further, the test could detect the viral genomes in 1:10, 1:50 and 1:1000 dilutions of total DNA extracted from clinical specimens (e.g. scabs, crusts) of natural cases (PCPV, VACV and BPSV) and 1:10 dilutions of DNA extracted from scabs collected from BoHV-2 experimentally infected cattle. A possible amplification of other orthopoxviruses, predicted by in silico analysis, was considered to not represent an important pitfall since these are exotic in Brazil, very rare, or viruses not associated with cattle. For definitive agent identification amplicon sequencing needs to be conducted. Thus, this multiplex PCR seems suitable for initial detection and identification of the agents involved in exanthematic and vesicular disease, providing a sensitive and specific diagnosis for such conditions in dairy cows.

A loop-mediated isothermal amplification assay for rapid and sensitive detection of bovine papular stomatitis virus

Bovine papular stomatitis virus (BPSV) causes pustular cutaneous disease in cattle worldwide. This paper describes the development of a specific loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay to detect BPSV which did not cross-react with other parapoxviruses. To assess analytical sensitivity of this LAMP assay, DNA was extracted from serially diluted BPSV from which the infectious titer was determined by a novel assay based on calf kidney epithelial cells. The LAMP assay had equivalent analytical sensitivity to quantitative PCR, and could detect as few as 86 copies of viral DNA per reaction. These results suggest that the assay is a specific and sensitive technique to rapidly diagnose bovine papular stomatitis in domestic animals.

Occurrence of Pseudocowpox virus associated to Bovine viral diarrhea virus-1, Brazilian Amazon

In 2011, an outbreak of severe vesicular disease occurred in the state of Pará, Amazon region. Besides proliferative or verrucous lesions, cattle showed atypical clinical signs such as diarrhea and leading to death. The animals were submitted to clinical, pathological and molecular diagnosis, and laboratory tests have confirmed the presence of Pseudocowpox virus (PCPV), a Parapoxvirus genus member, and have also found Bovine viral diarrhea virus-1 (BVDV-1), probably causing persistent infection. The results of molecular diagnostics, followed by sequencing data demonstrated the circulation of both viruses (PCPV and BVDV-1) in an area previously affected by another poxvirus, as Vaccinia virus.The cocirculation between PCPV and BVDV-1 indicates a major concern for animal health because the clinical presentation can be a severe disease. This is the first detection of PCPV in the Brazilian Amazon.

Detection of multiple viral infections in cattle and buffalo with suspected vesicular disease in Brazil

Vesicular diseases are of high importance for livestock, primarily because of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), which is a high-morbidity disease that generates direct losses caused by low milk production, weight loss, and indirect losses because of the need for sanitary barriers. Other vesicular diseases are also of importance for livestock because of direct impacts or because their clinical signs may be confused with those of FMD. We report herein the detection of multiple infections in cattle with suspected vesicular disease in the Brazilian states of Amazonas (AM), Mato Grosso (MT), and Roraima. Thirty-seven epithelial samples from cattle and 1 sample from a buffalo were sent to the laboratory for testing for FMDV and similar disease agents. All samples from MT were positive for parapoxvirus (Pseudocowpox virus and Bovine papular stomatitis virus). In addition, 3 samples were positive for Bluetongue virus, and 5 samples were positive for Bovine herpesvirus 1 Among these samples, 1 was positive for all of these 3 agents. Only 2 samples from AM were negative for parapoxvirus. The molecular tests conducted in this study detected multiple infections, with a high prevalence of parapoxvirus.

Coinfection with multiple strains of bovine papular stomatitis virus

Bovine papular stomatitis virus (BPSV) infects cattle and, occupationally, humans. Prevalent subclinical infections, frequent reinfections, and virus persistence in healthy animals compound a poorly understood, but likely complex, scenario of BPSV perpetuation and transmission in nature. Here, we report the isolation of multiple BPSV strains coinfecting a single animal. Whole-genome analysis of isolated BPSV strains revealed genomic variability likely affecting virus virulence and infectivity. Further, incongruent phylogenetic relationships between viruses suggested genomic recombination. These results have significant implications for parapoxvirus infection biology and virus evolution in nature.

Zoonotic parapoxviruses detected in symptomatic cattle in Bangladesh

Background

Application of molecular diagnostic methods to the determination of etiology in suspected poxvirus-associated infections of bovines is important both for the diagnosis of the individual case and to form a more complete understanding of patterns of strain occurrence and spread. The objective of this study was to identify and characterize bovine-associated zoonotic poxviruses in Bangladesh which are relevant to animal and human health.

Findings

Investigators from the International Center Diarrhoeal Disease Research (icddr,b), the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and the Bangladesh Department of Livestock Services traveled to three districts in Bangladesh—Siranjganj, Rangpur and Bhola–to collect diagnostic specimens from dairy cattle and buffalo that had symptoms consistent with poxvirus-associated infections. Bovine papular stomatitis virus (BPSV) DNA was obtained from lesion material (teat) and an oral swab collected from an adult cow and calf (respectively) from a dairy production farm in Siranjganj. Pseudocowpox virus (PCPV) DNA signatures were obtained from a scab and oral swab collected from a second dairy cow and her calf from Rangpur.

Conclusions

We report the first detection of zoonotic poxviruses from Bangladesh and show phylogenetic comparisons between the Bangladesh viruses and reference strains based on analyses of the B2L and J6R loci (vaccinia orthologs). Understanding the range and diversity of different species and strains of parapoxvirus will help to spotlight unusual patterns of occurrence that could signal events of significance to the agricultural and public health sectors.

Outbreaks of vesicular disease caused by Vaccinia virus in dairy cattle from Goiás State, Brazil (2010-2012)

Cases of vesicular and exanthematic disease by Vaccinia virus (VACV) have been reported in dairy herds of several Brazilian regions, occasionally also affecting humans. The present article describes eight outbreaks of vesicular disease caused by VACV in dairy herds of six counties of Goiás state, Midwestern Brazil (2010-2012), involving a total of 122 cows, 12 calves and 11 people. Dairy cows (3 to 9 years old) were affected in all cases and calves (2 to 9 months old) were affected in five outbreaks, presenting oral lesions. The morbidity ranged between 8 and 100% in cows, and 1.5 to 31% in calves. In the cows, the clinical signs started with vesicles (2-7mm), painful and coalescent papules (3-8 mm), which resulted in ulcers (5-25mm) and scabs in teats, and, occasionally, in the muzzle. The clinical course lasted from 16 to 26 days. The histopathology of bovine skin samples revealed superficial perivascular inflammatory infiltrate of lymphocytes, plasma cells, neutrophils, macrophages and multifocal areas of acanthosis, spongiosis, hipergranulosis and parakeratotic or orthokeratotic hyperkeratosis with adjacent focally extensive ulcers. Eosinophilic inclusion bodies were noted in the cytoplasm of the keratinocytes. PCR to vgf gene of Orthopoxvirus was positive in samples collected from all outbreaks, and in some cases, genomic VACV sequences were identified by nucleotide sequencing of the PCR amplicons. Infectious virus was isolated in cell culture from scabs from one outbreak. Antibodies to Orthopoxvirus were detected in at least 3 or 4 animals in most outbreaks, by ELISA (outbreaks 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 7) or virus-neutralization (outbreak 6). Neutralizing titers ranging from 8 to 64 in outbreak 6. In all outbreaks, VACV infection was suspected based on the clinical and pathological findings and it was confirmed by laboratory tests. Upon the etiological confirmation, other agents associated with vesicular disease were discarded. In all outbreaks, at least one milker who handled the affected cows developed malaise, headache, fever, painful vesico-pustular lesions mainly in the hands, but also in the neck and nose. These results confirm the circulation of VACV in the region and call attention for a correct diagnosis and the adoption of prophylactic and control measures.

Coinfection by Vaccinia virus and an Orf virus–like parapoxvirus in an outbreak of vesicular disease in dairy cows in midwestern Brazil

The current report describes an outbreak of vesicular disease affecting dairy cows in midwestern Brazil in which a coinfection with 2 poxviruses— Vaccinia virus (VACV) and a parapoxvirus—was demonstrated. Milking cows presented vesicles, painful reddish or whitish papules, and scabby proliferative lesions in the teats and udder, in a clinical course of approximately 10–21 days. Histologically, multifocal areas of moderate to severe acanthosis, spongiosis, hypergranulosis, and parakeratotic or orthokeratotic hyperkeratosis with adjacent focally extensive ulcers were observed in the epidermis. Rounded eosinophilic inclusion bodies were observed in the cytoplasm of epithelial cells of areas with acanthosis or necrosis. Moderate inflammatory infiltrate of lymphocytes, plasma cells, neutrophils, and macrophages were observed in some dermal areas. Two people milking the affected cows developed lesions on the hands, painful papules which progressed to ulcerative and scabby lesions in 4–7 days. Electron microscopy of scabs from 1 cow revealed the concomitant presence of orthopoxvirus and parapoxvirus particles. Scabs from 2 cows were positive by polymerase chain reaction for the parapoxvirus B2L gene; 1 of the scabs was also positive for the VACV vgf gene. Nucleotide sequencing of the B2L amplicon revealed a similarity of 96–99% with Orf virus (ORFV) and lower identity with Pseudocowpox virus (92–95%) and Bovine papular stomatitis virus (85–86%). Nucleotide sequencing of a region of parapoxvirus DNA polymerase gene revealed a high similarity (98–100%) with ORFV sequences. Thus, an unusual coinfection with VACV and a parapoxvirus, likely ORFV, was demonstrated in the outbreak.

Bovine papular stomatitis virus (BPSV) infections in Korean native cattle

An outbreak of a disease with parapox-like symptoms was reported in South Korea in April 2012. Three of 45 Korean native cattle, age 20-24 months, were affected. Parapoxviruses were detected and identified by electron microscopy and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). To determine the genetic characteristics of the Korean strains, the sequence of the major envelope protein (B2L) was determined and compared with published reference sequences. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the parapoxvirus strains were closely related to not only isolates from Japan, but also isolates from Germany, Sudan and the United states. This is the first report on an outbreak and the molecular characterization of BPSV in Korea.