Compartment syndromes of the foot: current concepts

Trauma Patients and Acute Compartment Syndrome: Is There an Ariadne's Thread That Can Safely Guide the Anesthesiologist/Emergency Physician Out of the Labyrinth?

Trauma patients in the emergency department experience severe pain that is not always easy to manage. The risk of acute compartment syndrome further complicates the analgesic approach. The purpose of this review is to discuss relevant bibliography and highlight current guidelines and recommendations for the safe practice of peripheral nerve blocks in this special group of patients. According to the recent bibliography, peripheral nerve blocks are not contraindicated in patients at risk of acute compartment syndrome, as long as there is surveillance and certain recommendations are followed.

Compartment Syndrome of the Foot

Foot compartment syndrome is an uncommon condition that should be recognized by all orthopedic surgeons. The clinical presentation is often less clear than other limb compartment syndromes and requires high clinical suspicion with a low threshold for direct measurement of compartment pressure. Controversy exists regarding the number of anatomic compartments and the most effective treatment. Both acute surgical intervention and delayed management can result in significant morbidity and long-term sequelae.

Percutaneous Forefoot Decompression in a Foot Compartment Syndrome Model

Acute compartment syndrome of the foot is a controversial topic. Release of the foot has been seen as complicated because of large incisions and postoperative morbidity, and there has been debate over whether this procedure is actually effective for releasing all areas of increased pressure. New sensor technology affords the opportunity to advance our understanding of acute compartment syndrome of the foot and its treatment. The purpose of the present study was to determine whether percutaneous decompression could be performed for the treatment of compartment syndrome in a forefoot model.

Chopart Injuries: When to Fix and When to Fuse?

Chopart joint injuries have a profound effect on global foot function. Surgical treatment aims at joint reconstruction and axial alignment with restoration of the normal relationship of the lateral and medial foot columns. Internal fixation is tailored to the individual fracture pattern and achieved with resorbable pins, Kirschner wires, screws, and/or anatomically shaped minifragment plates. If instability persists, temporary joint transfixation may be achieved with Kirschner wires or bridge plating. Primary fusion sacrifices essential joints and should be reserved for severe initial cartilage damage. Corrective fusion becomes necessary for malunited Chopart joint injuries with rapidly evolving posttraumatic arthritis.

Diagnosis and treatment of acute extremity compartment syndrome

Acute compartment syndrome of the extremities is well known, but diagnosis can be challenging. Ineffective treatment can have devastating consequences, such as permanent dysaesthesia, ischaemic contractures, muscle dysfunction, loss of limb, and even loss of life. Despite many studies, there is no consensus about the way in which acute extremity compartment syndromes should be diagnosed. Many surgeons suggest continuous monitoring of intracompartmental pressure for all patients who have high-risk extremity injuries, whereas others suggest aggressive surgical intervention if acute compartment syndrome is even suspected. Although surgical fasciotomy might reduce intracompartmental pressure, this procedure also carries the risk of long-term complications. In this paper in The Lancet Series about emergency surgery we summarise the available data on acute extremity compartment syndrome of the upper and lower extremities in adults and children, discuss the underlying pathophysiology, and propose a clinical guideline based on the available data.

Empty Toe Phenomenon: A Rare Presentation of Closed Degloving Injury of the Foot

Traumatic degloving injuries of the lower extremity are commonly diagnosed by soft tissue deficits and separation of soft tissue planes. The management of open degloving injuries is well documented with established treatment protocols. Because closed degloving injuries of the lower extremity are so rare, the protocol management is not well established. Unlike open degloving injuries, evidence of soft tissue injury and detachment of the tissue planes can be subtle. Owing to the rarity of these injuries, little has been described regarding the long-term outcomes. In the present report, 2 closed degloving cases are presented. The first case presented is of a 27-year-old railroad worker who sustained a severe closed degloving injury of his foot with digital soft tissue envelope transposition. The second case involved a 60-year-old automobile manufacturer, whose foot was crushed by a hydraulic fork lift, creating a degloving injury of the third, fourth, and fifth toes. The follow-up duration from the date of injury for patient 1 was 26 months and for patients 2 was 16 months. The purpose of presenting these cases is to report these rare injuries with the treatment, complications, and outcomes.

Non-Necrotizing Streptococcal Cellulitis as a Cause of Acute, Atraumatic Compartment Syndrome of the Foot: A Case Report

Acute compartment syndrome is widely accepted as a surgical emergency. Most cases of acute compartment syndrome occur after high-energy trauma, especially crush injuries. We present a unique case of acute, atraumatic compartment syndrome of the foot associated with infectious cellulitis. A 53-year-old male, with a medical history significant for human immunodeficiency virus, presented to the emergency department secondary to an insidious onset of intense foot pain, swelling, and an inability to bear weight on the affected extremity. He had no history of recent trauma. He was admitted to the hospital because of a suspected infection and subsequently was given intravenous antibiotics. During the admission, he developed a severe infection, and blood cultures demonstrated growth of group A streptococcus. No abscess or hematoma was identified on magnetic resonance imaging or during exploratory surgery. The findings from intraoperative cultures were negative. Despite proper medical care for his infection, the lower extremity pain worsened; therefore, compartmental pressures were obtained at the bedside. Multiple compartment pressures were measured and were >40 mm Hg. Compartment syndrome was diagnosed, and the patient was taken to the operating room for emergent fasciotomies. Surgical release of the medial, lateral, interosseous, and adductor compartments revealed copious amounts of serosanguinous drainage. Again, no definitive hematoma or purulence was identified. The patient's symptoms resolved after the fasciotomies, and he healed uneventfully. Our case highlights the need to consider acute compartment syndrome in the differential diagnosis for pain out of proportion to the clinical situation, even when a traditional etiology is absent.

Injury patterns causing isolated foot compartment syndrome

BACKGROUND

The true incidence and primary predictors of foot compartment syndrome remain controversial. Our aim was to better define the overall incidence of foot compartment syndrome in relation to the frequency and location of various foot injuries. We hypothesized that (1) the incidence would increase in proportion to the number of anatomic locations of injury, (2) the incidence would be higher in association with hindfoot and crush injuries compared with any other injury categories, and (3) not only would the incidence associated with calcaneal fractures be lower than the often quoted 10% but foot compartment syndrome would also be fairly uncommon after such fractures.

METHODS

The National Trauma Data Bank was used to identify patients who had undergone a fasciotomy for the treatment of isolated foot compartment syndrome. Strict inclusion and exclusion criteria were used to identify only patients with foot injuries who had undergone fasciotomy for foot compartment syndrome.

RESULTS

Three hundred and sixty-four patients with an isolated foot compartment syndrome were identified. The highest incidence of foot compartment syndrome was seen in association with a crush mechanism combined with a forefoot injury (18%, nineteen of 106), followed by an isolated crush injury (14%, twenty-three of 162). Only 1% (thirty-two) of 2481 patients with an isolated calcaneal fracture underwent fasciotomy. An increase in the number of anatomic locations of injury did not appear to correspond to an increased incidence of foot compartment syndrome.

CONCLUSION

Our results demonstrate that injuries involving a crush mechanism, either in isolation or in combination with a forefoot injury, should raise suspicion about the possibility that a foot compartment syndrome will develop.

Atraumatic compartment syndrome of the foot in a 15-year-old female

Compartment syndrome is a surgical emergency that usually occurs as a sequel to high-energy trauma. We report an uncommon presentation of atraumatic compartment syndrome of the right foot involving the abductor hallucis muscle. A 15-year-old female presented with pain and mild swelling of the right foot after taking part in a school sports activity. Compartment syndrome was diagnosed, >2 months of conservative treatment failed to improve her symptoms, and surgical release and debridement were performed. Our clinical experience demonstrates that compartment syndrome of the foot may occur after mild sports activity in physically inactive children.

Bilateral medial foot compartment syndrome after an aerobics class: a case report

The authors present an unusual case of bilateral medial foot compartment syndrome in a healthy woman after a low-intensity aerobics exercise class. The majority of compartment syndrome cases have occurred after trauma, such as combat crush injuries and motor vehicle accidents. We wish to call attention to a rare situation in which compartment syndrome occurs in a healthy young adult after low-intensity exercise and highlight the necessity of a high clinical suspicion and a low threshold for fasciotomies to prevent irreversible muscle damage as a result of extremely high pressures. There is a paucity of cases on the clinical management and follow-up of this rare occurrence of compartment syndrome.

Strategies for managing massive defects of the foot in high-energy combat injuries of the lower extremity

Blast-related lower extremity trauma presents many challenges in its management that are not frequently experienced in high-energy civilian trauma. Because many of the blasts experienced in the current conflicts are ground based, the foot and ankle have sustained considerable severity and extent of injury because of the proximity of the blast. The high functional demands required of active service members create several reconstructive challenges. The authors' experience in the current conflicts has shown a similar trend, with the magnitude of soft tissue injury usually dictating whether or not salvage may be possible. Several reconstructive options for bone defect management are outlined and discussed.

Compartment syndrome and lower-limb fasciotomies in the combat environment

Prophylactic and therapeutic treatment of leg compartment syndrome with decompression by double-incision fasciotomy prevents progression of soft-tissue injury in high-energy trauma. This treatment is the standard of care in civilian trauma and combat settings. More controversial is the use of either single- or dual-incision fasciotomy of the foot for prophylactic treatment of foot compartment syndrome. Fasciotomy must be performed in the face of major trauma to the foot with severe swelling and unremitting pain. The role for prophylactic fasciotomy of the foot is unclear and should be considered on a case by case basis. The surgeon must maintain a high degree of vigilance for the development of compartment syndrome in the combat casualty.

Open midfoot blast trauma treated with ring external fixation: case report

Level of Evidence: V, Case Report

Salvage of compartment syndrome of the leg and foot

Early diagnosis and treatment of compartment syndrome of the leg or foot is invaluable in avoiding a chronic and often debilitating course. In cases where an ischemic contracture results in pain, disability or soft tissue compromise, surgical intervention is indicated. Thorough physical examination of patients and a thorough understanding of pathomechanics of the foot and ankle are paramount. These combined with a comprehensive preoperative plan and meticulous execution can often provide improved function and decrease pain in patients affected by this debilitating problem.

Tibial compartment syndrome and the cavovarus foot

Compartment syndrome of the leg is an orthopedic emergency that requires a high index of suspicion for diagnosis and a low threshold for surgical management to prevent devastating complications. Where the clinical findings are subtle, continuous monitoring of compartment pressures, with clinical correlation, is the key to diagnosis. Surgical management should include decompression of all four compartments and early rehabilitation to prevent ischemic contracture. If contracture develops, it may cause varying degrees of equinocavovarus deformity of the foot and ankle. Appropriate evaluation and careful surgical planning that considers all components of this complex deformity are essential for obtaining good clinical results.

Compartment syndrome of the foot: an experimental approach to pressure measurement and release

INTRODUCTION

Using a cadaver model and multiple continuous compartment pressure measurement, we sought to determine the pressure distribution in different osseofascial spaces of the foot and determine the quickest and most effective technique of pressure release.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The compartment pressures were measured (in mmHg) in five different osseofascial spaces of each foot. In stepwise manner, warmed saline was injected only into the central compartment only. Three experimental approaches to fasciotomy were studied.

RESULTS

We recognized a simultaneous exponential increase of all foot compartments in all experimental models. With a medial fasciotomy technique first, a flexor brevis compartment incision was necessary to release pressures in the central compartments. Following this procedure, pressure was released in the tarsal tunnel and in the intermetatarsal area immediately. Pressure reduction in the central flexor space and in the tarsal tunnel was less effective with a dorsal fasciotomy technique.

CONCLUSIONS

There is no pressure increase of a "single" osseofascial space in case of a foot compartment syndrome. If immediate pressure release is required, a medial fasciotomy technique including the central flexors should be favoured.

Reconstruction of the foot after leg or foot compartment syndrome

Compartment syndrome should be treated early and aggressively to prevent late complications. Patients may have late deformity because of a failure of diagnosis, inadequate decompression, or a delay in fasciotomies. Late reconstruction will allow a plantigrade and relatively functional foot. Complete excision of scarred muscle will prevent recurrence in established deformities. Early treatment may prevent significant functional impairment by well-placed tenotomies. In patients with severe long-term deformities with extensive soft tissue contraction, incremental correction may be an appropriate intermediate intervention.

Botulinum toxin-A injections for spastic toe clawing

Spastic toe clawing describes extension at the metatarsophalangeal joints of the feet, flexion at the proximal interphalangeal joints and flexion at the distal interphalangeal joints that results from upper motor neuron lesions, such as stroke, intracranial hemorrhage, cervical myelopathy and brain tumors. Even though toe clawing is often asymptomatic, it can be painful. Previous studies have described the efficacy of injections of botulinum toxin type-A (BTX-A) to the long flexors of the toes, but this is often unsatisfactory as high dosages (up to 175 units) have been required, and patients often report significant residual toe clawing. We performed an open label, prospective study to assess the efficacy of BTX-A injections, targeting the long and short flexors of the toes, performed with electrical (motor point) stimulation under electromyographic guidance. Outcome measures, which included timed walking over 20m, objective assessment of toe clawing (modified Ashworth scale and a visual analog scale rating) and patient assessment of functional disability, were assessed before injections and at six-weeks' follow-up. Seven patients (five male and two female) of mean age 51 (range 38-70) were recruited. Four had spasticity from underlying intracranial hemorrhage, the remaining three from cerebral infarct, astrocytoma and post-traumatic cervical myelopathy. The total dose of BTX-A injected for toe clawing ranged from 40 to 90 units. Improvements were observed in all outcome measures except timed walking. Injecting BTX-A to the long and short flexors of the toes, with electrical stimulation under electromyographic guidance, is well tolerated and efficacious in the treatment of toe clawing from spasticity, allowing for lower dosages to be used.

Review: acute compartment syndrome of the foot

Foot compartment syndrome is a serious potential complication of foot crush injury, fractures, surgery, and vascular injury. The purpose of this article is to summarize and review the existing literature on this entity. Long-term sequelae of foot compartment syndrome (FCS) include contractures, deformity, weakness, paralysis, and sensory neuropathy. These complications are poorly tolerated, and often necessitate multiple procedures for rehabilitation. Therefore, the threshold for considering compartment syndrome and performing fasciotomy must be low to minimize such outcomes. The existence of nine foot compartments and frequent presence of complicating injuries necessitate multi-stick needle catheterization for direct measurement of compartment pressures. Fasciotomy is indicated when compartment pressure exceeds 30 mmHg, or if compartment pressure is greater than 10-30 mmHg below diastolic pressure. The approaches for compartment decompression generally include two dorsal incisions for access to forefoot compartments, and one medial incision for decompression of the calcaneal, medial, superficial, and lateral compartments.

Sprains about the foot and ankle encountered in the workmans' compensation patient

Soft tissue injury in the workmans' compensation patient population has been previously poorly understood. Injuries that do not show up easily on radiographs are often undertriaged and undertreated. With the advent of improved imaging techniques, an enhanced understanding of soft tissue injuries has evolved over the past few years. Coupled with improved surgical and rehabilitation techniques, severely injured patients are able to experience remarkable recoveries. Many cannot return to previous function. These patients pose challenges to the astute clinician with regards to psychosocial issues relative to secondary gain. In addition, State-to-State variations in the workmans' compensation laws can confuse clinicians. Because of the protections and laws set in place in the United States, these patients can frequently be returned to the workforce as grateful and productive members of society.

Calcaneal compartment syndrome after tibial fractures

Compartment syndrome of the newly discovered calcaneal compartment of the foot is a theoretical possibility following tibial fracture due to the communication with the deep posterior compartment of the calf. Forty-nine patients were reviewed at least 18 months after open or closed tibial shaft fractures treated with tibial nailing in order to determine the prevalence of foot deformities secondary to previously undetected calcaneal or leg compartment syndromes. Ankle movements, foot height, length of feet and degree of clawing of the toes were all measured and compared with the unaffected opposite side. None of the patients complained of any symptoms from their feet and none had any significant foot deformities. Calcaneal compartment syndrome is rare after tibial fracture and routine measurement of calcaneal compartment pressures after such injuries is not indicated.

Foot compartment syndrome

FCS is a recognized clinical entity that has few consistent clinical signs except tense swelling. A high degree of clinical suspicion is necessary to provide appropriate treatment. Invasive direct pressure monitoring is needed to diagnose FCS. High-energy injuries are known to cause FCS, but individual risk factors, such as prolonged venous occlusion and blood dyscrasias, are causative factors.

Soft tissue complications of orthopedic emergencies

The emergency physician encounters a diversity of potentially devastating and disabling soft tissue maladies. This article reviews the literature and approach to the compartment syndrome and Volkmann contracture, reflex sympathetic dystrophy and causalgia, fracture blisters, and gas gangrene.

Judicious evaluation of adverse drug reactions: inaccurate assessment of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase inhibitor-induced muscle injury

Adverse reactions in two patients who received HMG CoA reductase inhibitor therapy were reinvestigated because of their rarity. A case of permanent forearm myalgia was thought to be caused by atorvastatin. Closer evaluation and work-up revealed underlying lateral epicondylitis, and atorvastatin was not considered the cause of the disability. In another patient, rhabdomyolysis was suspected to be secondary to simvastatin. However, after an extensive review, the reaction was believed to be compartment syndrome of the anterior tibial area. An adverse drug reaction report requires careful and judicious assessment to assign the correct probability for the event.

Raised intracompartmental pressure and compartment syndromes

Raised intracompartmental pressure (ICP) has become recognized as the final common pathway of a variety of pathologies which lead to failure of the microcirculation with resultant tissue hypoxia and cell death. While commonly seen after trauma, either accidental or operative, raised ICP may result from either an increase in the volume of tissue within a closed osseo-fascial or fascial compartment or by the application of an external force compressing a compartment, and it is associated with a wide variety of insults. The advent of reproducible techniques of measuring ICP has added science to a well-recognized clinical picture and allowed a rational approach to management. Controversies still remain, particularly in regard to the level of pressure at which intervention becomes mandatory, and the role of prophylactic interventions. This review attempts to present current thinking on the pathophysiology of the microcirculation and the background to these controversies.

Surgical correction of talipes equinovarus following foot and leg compartment syndrome

Between 1984 and 1994, 40 patients with a posttraumatic compartment syndrome of the lower leg and foot were treated for talipes equinovarus adductus foot deformity, which subsequently developed. Twenty patients had a wedge osteotomy followed by arthrodesis of the midtarsal joint (Chopart joint). Another 17 patients had an arthrodesis of the midtarasal and subtalar joints. In the remaining three patients, in addition to arthrodesis, lengthening of the tendons of the long flexors and the Achilles tendon was performed. Complications included wound infections (six cases), drill hole infections (three cases), chronic osteomyelitis (one case), and an ankle joint infection (one case). The clinical result was assessed as good in 37.5%, fair in 52.5%, and poor in 10% of the patients. Before the operation, 37 patients required modified footwear. After the operation, only eight patients needed them. Wedge osteotomy of the midtarsal and subtalar joints followed by an arthrodesis is an advantageous treatment modality for the correction of severe postischemic equinovarus adductus foot deformities. In our study, patient satisfaction was high. While complications frequently occur, it is not extraordinary considering the salvage nature of the procedure.

Fractures of the calcaneus. Part I: Anatomy, injury mechanism, and classification

Calcaneal fractures have been treated by closed methods since the time of Hippocrates. The understanding of the anatomy, injury mechanism, and classification of these fractures has advanced since surgical treatment was introduced in 1850. Despite 145 years of different treatment techniques, no consensus has been reached. Investigation into the injury patterns, anatomy, and outcomes has lead to the advances reviewed in this article.

Isolated medial compartment syndrome of the foot: a case report

Compartment syndrome, which results from increased pressure within a closed osseofascial compartment, compromises the viability of tissues and requires prompt fasciotomy for successful outcome. The vast majority of published series on compartment syndrome emphasizes the substantial amount of soft tissue and/or bony trauma that accompanies the condition. This report describes an isolated medial compartment syndrome without evidence of specific injury.

Ischemic contracture of the foot and ankle: principles of management and prevention

A variety of clinical presentations can be encountered following compartment syndrome of the leg and foot. Deformity and functional impairment in the foot and ankle secondary to ischemia are determined by: 1) which leg compartments have been affected and to what degree extrinsic flexor or extensor "overpull" is exhibited, 2) degree of nerve injury sustained causing weakness or paralysis of extrinsic or intrinsic foot and ankle muscles, 3) which foot compartments have been affected and to what degree intrinsic "overpull" is exhibited, and 4) degree of sensory nerve injury leading to anesthesia, hypoesthesia, or hyperesthesia of the foot. Nonoperative therapy attempts to obtain or preserve joint mobility, increase strength, and provide corrective bracing and accommodative foot wear. Operative management is undertaken for treatment of residual nerve compression or refractory problematic deformities. Established surgical protocols are performed in a stepwise fashion, and include: 1) release of residual or secondary nerve compression; 2) release of fixed contractures, using infarct excision, myotendinous lengthening, muscle recession, or tenotomy; 3) tendon transfers or arthrodesis to increase function; and 4) osteotomy or amputation for severe, non-salvageable deformities.

Acute exertional compartment syndrome of the medial foot

A review of compartment syndrome, both acute and chronic, is presented. The pathophysiology, anatomy, diagnosis, and treatment are presented in relation to a unique case report. The case is one of acute exertional compartment syndrome of the medial foot treated by fasciotomy. This condition is uncommon in both its nature and location.

Compartment syndrome of the foot in children

Compartment syndrome of the foot following trauma is well known in adults but has not been discussed frequently in texts on pediatric trauma. In the current study, seven children and teenagers were identified as having had compartment syndrome of the foot during a five-year period. The average age at the time of the diagnosis was ten years (range, four to sixteen years). The cause of the compartment syndrome was a crush injury in six patients and a motor-vehicle accident in one. All patients had swelling and pain with passive motion, but none had neurovascular deficits. Only the two oldest children had an osseous injury that necessitated open reduction and internal fixation, but all had elevated compartment pressures ranging from thirty-eight to fifty-five millimeters of mercury (5.07 to 7.33 kilopascals). All seven patients had fasciotomies of the nine compartments of the foot, and the skin was closed primarily within five days after the operation. No patient had complications or needed a skin graft. All patients had a good or excellent result after an average duration of follow-up of forty-one months (range, twenty-three to fifty-three months). Orthopaedists managing children who have a traumatic injury of the foot, especially a crush injury, should have a high index of suspicion for compartment syndrome, even in the absence of severe fracture.

Compartment syndrome: a complication of acute extremity trauma

Compartment syndrome is a serious potential complication of trauma to the extremities. Fractures, crush injuries, burns, and arterial injuries, among others, can result in increased tissue pressure within closed osseofascial or compartmental spaces. Prolonged exposure to elevated pressure can result in nerve and muscle necrosis. Extreme pain unrelieved with analgesia, subjective complaint of pressure, pain with passive muscle stretching, paresis, paresthesia, and intact pulses, in the presence of a physically tight compartment, should alert the physician to the presence of a compartment syndrome. The diagnosis is a clinical one, but it may be aided by measurements of intracompartmental tissue pressures. Compartment syndrome is a surgical emergency requiring prompt treatment by fasciotomy. Time is a critical factor; the longer the duration of elevated tissue pressure, the greater the potential for disastrous sequelae. Emergency medicine providers must be cognizant of this clinical syndrome so that early emergent surgical consultation can be obtained to avoid complications.

Common compartment syndromes in athletes. Treatment and rehabilitation

Compartment syndromes in athletes are rare, but they can also be limb-threatening events. Chronic exertional compartment syndrome (CECS) is a less emergent form where symptoms recur with repetitive loading or exertional activities. CECS is the most common form of compartment syndrome seen in athletes. Acute compartment syndromes may also occur in athletes secondary to direct trauma or may develop from pre-existing CECS. The leg is by far the most common site of compartment syndrome in athletes. The thigh, forearm, and foot are the next most common sites, although any fascially limited compartment can be affected. Awareness of the clinical presentation and pathophysiology of compartment syndromes can help the examiner make a prompt and accurate diagnosis. The treatment of acute compartment syndrome is emergent while the treatment of CECS is not. Conservative treatment and rehabilitation can be successful in treating CECS. Acute compartment syndromes must be treated immediately with surgical decompression. With CECS, if conservative treatment fails, surgical decompression is also indicated. Some authors have suggested that the results of surgical fasciotomy and rate of return to sport for athletes with CECS has not been uniform. If the diagnosis is accurate and carefully documented, a high degree of success with athletes returning to sport can be expected.

Concurrent compartment syndromes of the foot and leg

We reviewed the case summaries of eight patients who developed concurrent compartment syndromes of the foot and leg after trauma. Patients with multiple fractures of the lower extremities, particularly the tibia, femur, and foot, may develop this disorder. The obvious causes of the concurrent syndromes, concurrent fractures and generalized limb ischemia, were seen only in two patients. The communication between the compartments of the foot and leg may be an additional causative factor. Delayed fasciotomy resulted in muscle necrosis and/or tibial nerve dysfunction. Suspected cases should have the diagnosis established by catheterization of the involved compartments. Prompt fasciotomies of the foot and leg should be performed if the pressures are significantly elevated.