Measuring Behavioral Inhibition and Behavioral Activation in Older Adults: Construct Validity of the Dutch BIS/BAS Scales

Unlocking the age-old secrets of reward and substance use

Although substance use is widespread across the lifespan from early adolescence to older adulthood, the prevalence of substance use disorder (SUD) differs between age groups. These age differences in SUD rates necessitate an investigation into how age moderates reward sensitivity, and consequently influences the risks and consequences related to substance use. This theoretical review integrates evidence from the literature to address the dynamic interplay between age and reward in the context of substance use. Overall, increasing evidence demonstrates that age moderates reward sensitivity and underlying reward system neurobiology. Reward sensitivity undergoes a non-linear trajectory across the lifespan. Low levels of reward sensitivity are associated with childhood and late adulthood. In contrast, high levels are associated with early to late adolescence, followed by a decline in the twenties. These fluctuations in reward sensitivity across the lifespan contribute to complex associations with substance use. This lends support to adolescence and young adulthood as vulnerable periods for the risk of subsequent SUD. More empirical research is needed to investigate reward sensitivity during SUD maintenance and recovery. Future research should also involve larger sample sizes and encompass a broader range of age groups, including older adults.

Measuring Personality Systems in Older Adults: Age-Neutrality of the Dutch BIS/BAS Questionnaire

Introduction

With a rapidly aging population, age-neutrality of psychological instruments is becoming ever more important for accurate assessment of older adults. This study aims to test the age-neutrality of the Dutch Behavioral Inhibition System/Behavioral Approach System (BIS/BAS) scales by means of Differential Item Functioning (DIF) and Differential Test Functioning (DTF) analyses.

Methods

DIF and DTF analyses were conducted using an odds ratio approach. Potential DIF was examined for the two primary scales and three BAS subscales in 390 Dutch-speaking participants divided over three age groups.

Results

Overall, the BIS-BAS scales lacked age-neutrality when comparing older adults to young adults: eight out of 20 items (ie, 40%) displayed DIF according to the adjusted Bonferroni corrected cut-offs, which exceeds the threshold of 25% for large DIF. Thus, for 40% of the test items, items were differently endorsed by young and older adults with the same position on the construct measured by the item. Therefore, the implications of the item-level DIF on the scale level were investigated across age groups. DTF analyses revealed large DTF for all BIS and BAS scales according to the adjusted Bonferroni corrected cut-offs.

Discussion

DIF found in items on the BIS scale and BAS-Drive and BAS-Fun Seeking scale can probably be explained by a difference in degree of expression across age groups. A solution could be the development of age-specific norms. DIF on BAS-Reward Responsiveness subscale could be partly due to measuring a different construct across age groups. Rephrasing or replacing such items with DIF may increase age-neutrality of the BIS/BAS Scales.

Associations Between Interindividual Differences, Expectations and Placebo and Nocebo Effects in Itch

Introduction: Placebo and nocebo effects are positive and negative health outcomes that can be elicited by the psychosocial context. They can be mediated by expectations, and may emerge in somatic symptoms even when people are aware of these effects. Interindividual differences (e.g., in personality, affective states) could impact placebo and nocebo responding, but findings are inconsistent. Methods: The current work examined expectation as a mediator of the association between verbal placebo and nocebo suggestions (VSs) and histamine-induced itch across three experimental studies. Moreover, we examined whether interindividual differences (e.g., in optimism, neuroticism, behavioral activation system (BAS), body ignorance) modulated: (1) the direct association between VSs and itch (direct moderation), and (2) the indirect, expectation-mediated association between VSs and itch (moderated mediation). Positive VSs were compared to neutral instructions (Study 1; n = 92) or negative VSs (Studies 2+3; n = 203) in an open-label (i.e., explaining placebo and nocebo effects) or closed-label (concealed) context using PROCESS. First, mediation of VSs effects on itch by expectations was tested. Next, moderation by individual traits was explored using conditional process analyses. Results: The effects of VSs on itch were significantly mediated by expectation in Study 1 and in the open-label (but not closed-label) contexts of Studies 2 and 3. Ignorance of bodily signals marginally moderated the direct effects of VSs on itch when closed-label suggestions were given: at low levels of body ignorance, effects of positive and negative VSs were stronger. Moreover, moderated mediation was observed in the open-label groups of Studies 2 and 3: The expectation-mediated effects of VSs on itch were stronger when BAS drive was lower. Conclusion: Overall, the effects of VSs on itch were mediated by expectations in the open-label, but not the closed-label context. Moreover, the current work suggests that placebo and nocebo effects may be moderated by ignorance of bodily signals and the BAS. There was limited evidence that other interindividual differences modulated placebo and nocebo responding in itch.