Resection of Colorectal Liver Metastases: Current Perspectives

The evolution of surgery for colorectal liver metastases: A persistent challenge to improve survival

Only a few decades ago, the opinion that colorectal liver metastases were a palliative diagnosis changed. In fact, previously, the prevailing view was strongly resistant against resecting colorectal liver metastases. Constant technical improvement of liver surgery and, much later, effective chemotherapy allowed for a successful wider application of surgery. The clinical use of portal vein embolization was the starting signal of regenerative liver surgery, where insufficient liver volume can be expanded to an extent where safe resection is possible. Today, a number of these techniques including portal vein ligation, associating liver partition and portal vein ligation for staged hepatectomy, and bi-embolization (portal and hepatic vein) can be successfully used to address an insufficient future liver remnant in staged resections. It turned out that the road to success is embedding surgery in a well-orchestrated oncological concept of controlling systemic disease. This concept was the prerequisite that meant liver transplantation could enter the treatment strategy for colorectal liver metastases, ending up with a 5-year overall survival of 80% in highly selected cases. In particular, techniques combining principles of 2-stage hepatectomy and liver transplantation, such as "resection and partial liver segment 2-3 transplantation with delayed total hepatectomy" (RAPID) are on the rise. These techniques enable the use of partial liver grafts with primarily insufficient liver volume. All this progress also prompted a number of innovative local therapies to address recurrences ultimately transferring colorectal liver metastases from instantly deadly into a chronic disease in some cases.

Could diagnostic and therapeutic delay affect the prognosis of gastrointestinal primary malignancies in the COVID-19 pandemic era? A literature review

BACKGROUND

Emergency situations, as the Covid-19 pandemic that is striking the world nowadays, stress the national health systems which are forced to rapidly reorganizing their sources. Therefore, many elective diagnostic and surgical procedures are being suspended or significantly delayed. Moreover, patients might find it difficult to refer to physicians and delay the diagnostic and even the therapeutic procedures because of emotional or logistic problems. The effect of diagnostic and therapeutic delay on survival in patients affected by gastrointestinal malignancies is still unclear.

METHODS

We carried out a review of the available literature, in order to determine whether the delay in performing diagnosis and curative-intent surgical procedures affects the oncological outcomes in patients with oesophageal, gastric, colorectal cancers, and colorectal liver metastasis.

RESULTS

The findings indicate that for oesophageal, gastric and colon cancers delaying surgery up to 2 months after the end of the staging process does not worsen the oncological outcomes. Oesophageal cancer should undergo surgery within 7-8 weeks after the end of neoadjuvant chemoradiation. Rectal cancers should undergo surgery within 31 days after the diagnostic process and within 12 weeks after neoadjuvant therapy. Adjuvant therapy should start within 4 weeks after surgery, especially in gastric cancer; a delay up to 42 days may be allowed for oesophageal cancer undergoing adjuvant radiotherapy.

CONCLUSIONS

Gastrointestinal malignancies can be safely managed taking into account that reasonable delays of planned treatments appear a generally safe approach, not having a significant impact on long-term oncological outcome.

Partial hepatectomy enhances the growth of CC531 rat colorectal cancer cells both in vitro and in vivo

Partial hepatectomy (PHx) is the gold standard for the treatment of colorectal cancer liver metastases. However, after removing a substantial amount of hepatic tissue, growth factors are released to induce liver regeneration, which may promote the proliferation of liver micrometastases or circulating tumour cells still present in the patient. The aim of this study is to assess the effect of PHx on the growth of liver metastases induced by intrasplenic cell inoculation as well as on in vitro proliferation of the same cancer cell line. Liver tumours were induced in 18 WAG/RijHsd male rats, by seeding 250,000 syngeneic colorectal cancer cells (CC531) into the spleen. The left lateral lobe of the liver was mobilized and in half of the animals it was removed to achieve a 40% hepatectomy. Twenty-eight days after tumour induction, the animals were sacrificed and the liver was removed and sliced to assess the relative tumour surface area (RTSA%). CC531 cells were cultured in presence of foetal calf serum, non-hepatectomised (NRS) or hepatectomized rat serum (HRS), and their proliferation rate at 24, 48, and 72 h was measured. RTSA% was significantly higher in animals which had undergone PHx than in the controls (non-hepatectomised) (46.98 ± 8.76% vs. 18.73 ± 5.65%; p < 0.05). Analysing each lobe separately, this difference in favour of hepatectomized animals was relevant and statistically significant in the paramedian and caudate lobes. But in the right lobe the difference was scarce and not significant. In vitro, 2.5% HRS achieved stronger proliferative rates than the control cultures (10% FCS) or their equivalent of NRS. In this experimental model, a parallelism has been shown between the effect of PHx on the growth of colorectal cancer cells in the liver and the effect of the serum on those cells in vitro.

Electrocoagulation for liver metastases

BACKGROUND

Primary liver tumours and liver metastases from colorectal carcinoma are two of the most common malignant tumours to affect the liver. The liver is second only to the lymph nodes as the most common site for metastatic disease. More than half of the people with metastatic liver disease will die from metastatic complications. Electrocoagulation by diathermy is a method used to destroy tumour tissue, using a high-frequency electric current generating high temperatures, applied locally with an electrode (needle, blade, or ball). The objective of this method is to destroy the tumour completely, if possible, in a single session. With the time, electrocoagulation by diathermy has been replaced by other techniques, but the evidence is unclear.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the beneficial and harmful effects of electrocoagulation by diathermy, administered alone or with another intervention, versus no intervention, other ablation methods, or systemic treatments in people with liver metastases.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the Cochrane Hepato-Biliary Group Controlled Trials Register, CENTRAL, MEDLINE Ovid, Embase Ovid, LILACS, Science Citation Index Expanded, Conference Proceedings Citation Index - Science, CINAHL, ClinicalTrials.gov, ICTRP, and FDA to October 2020.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We considered all randomised trials that assessed beneficial and harmful effects of electrocoagulation by diathermy, administered alone or with another intervention, versus comparators, in people with liver metastases, regardless of the location of the primary tumour.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

We used standard methodological procedures expected by Cochrane. We assessed risk of bias of the included trial using predefined risk of bias domains, and presented the review results incorporating the certainty of the evidence using GRADE.

MAIN RESULTS

We included one randomised clinical trial with 306 participants (175 males; 131 females) who had undergone resection of the sigmoid colon, and who had five or more visible and palpable hepatic metastases. The diagnosis was confirmed by histological assessment (biopsy) and by carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) level. The trial was conducted in Iraq. The age of participants ranged between 38 and 79 years. The participants were randomised to four different study groups. The liver metastases were biopsied and treated (only once) in three of the groups: 75 received electrocoagulation by diathermy alone, 76 received electrocoagulation plus allopurinol, 78 received electrocoagulation plus dimethyl sulphoxide. In the fourth intervention group, 77 participants functioning as controls received a vehicle solution of allopurinol 5 mL 4 x a day by mouth; the metastases were left untouched. The status of the liver and lungs was followed by ultrasound investigations, without the use of a contrast agent. Participants were followed for five years. The analyses are based on per-protocol data only analysing 223 participants. We judged the trial to be at high risk of bias. After excluding 'nonevaluable patients', the groups seemed comparable for baseline characteristics. Mortality due to disease spread at five-year follow-up was 98% in the electrocoagulation group (57/58 evaluable people); 87% in the electrocoagulation plus allopurinol group (46/53 evaluable people); 86% in the electrocoagulation plus dimethyl sulphoxide group (49/57 evaluable people); and 100% in the control group (55/55 evaluable people). We observed no difference in mortality between the electrocoagulation alone group versus the control group (risk ratio (RR) 0.98, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.94 to 1.03; 113 participants; very low-certainty evidence). We observed lower mortality in the electrocoagulation combined with allopurinol or dimethyl sulphoxide group versus the control group (RR 0.87, 95% CI 0.80 to 0.95; 165 participants; low-certainty evidence). We are very uncertain regarding post-operative deaths between the electrocoagulation alone group versus the control group (RR 1.03, 95% CI 0.07 to 16.12; 152 participants; very low-certainty evidence) and between the electrocoagulation combined with allopurinol or dimethyl sulphoxide groups versus the control group (RR 1.00, 95% CI 0.09 to 10.86; 231 participants; very low-certainty evidence). The trial authors did not report data on number of participants with other adverse events and complications, recurrence of liver metastases, time to progression of liver metastases, tumour response measures, and health-related quality of life. Data on failure to clear liver metastases were not provided for the control group. There was no information on funding or conflict of interest. We identified no ongoing trials.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

The evidence on the beneficial and harmful effects of electrocoagulation alone or in combination with allopurinol or dimethyl sulphoxide in people with liver metastases is insufficient, as it is based on one randomised clinical trial at low to very low certainty. It is very uncertain if there is a difference in all-cause mortality and post-operative mortality between electrocoagulation alone versus control. It is also uncertain if electrocoagulation in combination with allopurinol or dimethyl sulphoxide may result in a slight reduction of all-cause mortality in comparison with a vehicle solution of allopurinol (control). It is very uncertain if there is a difference in post-operative mortality between the electrocoagulation combined with allopurinol or dimethyl sulphoxide group versus control. Data on other adverse events and complications, failure to clear liver metastases or recurrence of liver metastases, time to progression of liver metastases, tumour response measures, and health-related quality of life were most lacking or insufficiently reported for analysis. Electrocoagulation by diathermy is no longer used in the described way, and this may explain the lack of further trials.

Ascending Colon Cancer with Pathologically Confirmed Tumor Thrombosis of Superior Mesenteric Vein: A Case Report

Colon cancer is very rarely accompanied by tumor thrombosis of the superior mesenteric vein (SMV). A 46-year-old patient had been diagnosed with SMV tumor thrombosis related to colon cancer without hepatic metastasis and underwent right hemicolectomy with SMV tumor thrombectomy. Tumor thrombosis was pathologically confirmed as metastatic colon cancer. There has been no recurrence for 12 months with 12 cycles of adjuvant-chemotherapy.

Radiofrequency ablation with systemic chemotherapy in the treatment of colorectal cancer liver metastasis: a 10-year single-center study

Objective

To retrospectively evaluate the long-term efficacy and safety of radiofrequency ablation (RFA) with systemic chemotherapy (CT) in treatment of solitary liver metastasis after surgery for colorectal cancer (CRC).

Methods

This single-center study was conducted at the Hunan Provincial Cancer Hospital from June 2006 to December 2015 with median follow-up time of 26 months. Percutaneous ultrasound-guided RFA was carried out on eligible patients with solitary liver metastasis after surgery for CRC. After a week, ablation status was confirmed by MRI. Post MRI, all patients received systemic CT with or without molecular-targeted therapy. Survival rate was evaluated and survival curve was constructed with Kaplan-Meier analysis. Log-rank test and Cox regression model were used for univariate and multivariate analysis, respectively, to determine the independent prognostic factors for survival rate.

Results

A total of 109 eligible patients (mean age, 53.84±11.71; mean tumor mass diameter, 3.4+2.01 cm) were enrolled in this 10-year study. After RFA, 95 patients achieved complete ablation, and 14 patients achieved partial ablation, with median ablation time of 26 minutes (range: 12-120 minutes). The median survival time required for achieving complete and partial ablation was 56.0 and 19.0 months, respectively (P<.01). After RFA and adjuvant systemic CT, the 1-, 3-, and 5-year survival rates were 92.3%, 50.7%, and 41.6%, respectively, with the median (mean) survival time of 39.0 (56.5) months. Age was the only significant independent prognostic factor with better survival rate observed in patients aged ≥50 years than those aged <50 years (P<0.05). The incidence of complications was minimal (1.8%) with only two cases: one biliary fistula and one liver hemorrhage.

Conclusion

RFA combination with systemic CT was safe; it showed long-term efficacy in patients with solitary liver metastasis after surgery for CRC and can be a preferred treatment.

Phase I trial of radiation therapy and sorafenib in unresectable liver metastases

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

To determine maximum tolerated dose (MTD) and toxicities of sorafenib combined with stereotactic radiotherapy (SBRT) or whole liver radiotherapy (WLRT) in patients with liver metastases.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Eligible patients had unresectable liver metastases. Sorafenib dose was escalated in 2 strata: I - SBRT: effective liver volume irradiated (V_eff)<80% (30-60Gy in 6 fractions); II - WLRT: V_eff>80% (21.6Gy in 6 fractions). Four weeks of sorafenib, with radiotherapy during weeks 2-3, was delivered at 3 escalating dose levels (200-400mg twice daily). Dose limiting toxicity was defined as any grade 3+ liver toxicity, or grade 4+ treatment-related toxicity.

RESULTS

Thirty-three patients were treated: 18 in stratum I (median dose 42Gy), 15 in stratum II. The MTD was not reached. Grade 3+ toxicity was seen in 33% of patients, at a median of 10days. Two deaths from non-classic liver toxicity occurred post WLRT in stratum II. The median overall survival was 22.3 and 5.7months for strata I and II respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Sorafenib and 21.6Gy in 6 fraction WLRT resulted in unacceptably high rates of liver toxicity. Although sorafenib combined with SBRT was tolerable, the observed efficacy does not merit further clinical evaluation.

Regulation of colorectal cancer cell epithelial to mesenchymal transition by the renin angiotensin system

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) is implicated in tumor progression. We aimed to determine if the renin angiotensin system has a role in colorectal cancer (CRC) cell EMT.

METHODS

Human CRC cell lines DLD-1 and LIM2405 were used in wound scratch migration assays where they were treated with renin angiotensin system peptide ANG II alone or with blockers of ANG II type 1 or 2 receptors (AT1R and AT2R). Levels of epithelial (E-cadherin), mesenchymal (ZEB1, Vimentin) markers, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and MMP9 were determined by flow cytometry. Mice bearing CRC liver metastases and treated with blockers for AT1R or AT2R were examined for ZEB1 and iNOS by immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

ANG II increased in-vitro CRC cell migration in both cell lines, this was inhibited by AT1R (IRB) or AT2R blockade (PD123319). DLD-1 cells treated with AT1R blocker resulted in increased E-cadherin, reduced ZEB1, and Vimentin expression compared with ANG II-treated cells. Treatment with AT2R blocker decreased E-cadherin, no change in ZEB1 or Vimentin expression. AT1R blockade increased iNOS and decreased MMP9 expression in DLD-1 and LIM2405 cells. AT2R blockade decreased iNOS and MMP9 expression in both cell lines. In vivo, ZEB1 staining was higher in ANG II-treated animals compared with control and AT1R blockade treated animals, while activation of the AT2R led to an increase in iNOS compared with control and AT1R blockade.

CONCLUSIONS

ANG II-induced migration of CRC cells via both AT1 and AT2 receptors; the AT1R-mediated effects were associated with changes typical of EMT.

An Ultrasound Image-Based Dynamic Fusion Modeling Method for Predicting the Quantitative Impact of In Vivo Liver Motion on Intraoperative HIFU Therapies: Investigations in a Porcine Model

Organ motion is a key component in the treatment of abdominal tumors by High Intensity Focused Ultrasound (HIFU), since it may influence the safety, efficacy and treatment time. Here we report the development in a porcine model of an Ultrasound (US) image-based dynamic fusion modeling method for predicting the effect of in vivo motion on intraoperative HIFU treatments performed in the liver in conjunction with surgery. A speckle tracking method was used on US images to quantify in vivo liver motions occurring intraoperatively during breathing and apnea. A fusion modeling of HIFU treatments was implemented by merging dynamic in vivo motion data in a numerical modeling of HIFU treatments. Two HIFU strategies were studied: a spherical focusing delivering 49 juxtapositions of 5-second HIFU exposures and a toroidal focusing using 1 single 40-second HIFU exposure. Liver motions during breathing were spatially homogenous and could be approximated to a rigid motion mainly encountered in the cranial-caudal direction (f = 0.20 Hz, magnitude > 13 mm). Elastic liver motions due to cardiovascular activity, although negligible, were detectable near millimeter-wide sus-hepatic veins (f = 0.96 Hz, magnitude < 1 mm). The fusion modeling quantified the deleterious effects of respiratory motions on the size and homogeneity of a standard "cigar-shaped" millimetric lesion usually predicted after a 5-second single spherical HIFU exposure in stationary tissues (Dice Similarity Coefficient: DSC < 45%). This method assessed the ability to enlarge HIFU ablations during respiration, either by juxtaposing "cigar-shaped" lesions with spherical HIFU exposures, or by generating one large single lesion with toroidal HIFU exposures (DSC > 75%). Fusion modeling predictions were preliminarily validated in vivo and showed the potential of using a long-duration toroidal HIFU exposure to accelerate the ablation process during breathing (from 0.5 to 6 cm3 · min(-1)). To improve HIFU treatment control, dynamic fusion modeling may be interesting for assessing numerically focusing strategies and motion compensation techniques in more realistic conditions.

Influence of the binding of reduced NAMI-A to human serum albumin on the pharmacokinetics and biological activity

Chemical transformations of NAMI-A in biological environments.

Safety of redo hepatectomy for colorectal liver metastases after selective interarterial radiation therapy: a case report

Surgical resection is the only potentially curative strategy in the treatment of patients with colorectal liver metastases (CLM). Unfortunately, only about 10%–15% of patients are candidates for resection. Preoperative chemotherapy aims to increase the number of patients that may be eligible for liver resection by downsizing liver metastases. For patients with unresectable, chemotherapy refractory CLM the available treatment options are limited. Selective interarterial radiation therapy (SIRT) is one of the most promising treatment options for this group of patients. Although only a small number of these patients have been reported as becoming candidates for potentially curative hepatic resection following sufficient reduction in the volume of liver metastases, the question arises regarding the safety of liver resection in these patients. We report a case of a patient who presented unresectable liver relapse of CLM after previous right hepatectomy. He underwent SIRT which resulted in downsizing of the liver metastases making the patient candidate for left lateral sectionectomy. He underwent the redo hepatectomy without any complications. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first reported case of redo hepatectomy after SIRT for CLM.

Selective Interarterial Radiation Therapy (SIRT) in Colorectal Liver Metastases: How Do We Monitor Response?

Radioembolisation is a way of providing targeted radiotherapy to colorectal liver metastases. Results are encouraging but there is still no standard method of assessing the response to treatment. This paper aims to review the current experience assessing response following radioembolisation. A literature review was undertaken detailing radioembolisation in the treatment of colorectal liver metastases comparing staging methods, criteria, and response. A search was performed of electronic databases from 1980 to November 2011. Information acquired included year published, patient numbers, resection status, chemotherapy regimen, criteria used to stage disease and assess response to radioembolisation, tumour markers, and overall/progression free survival. Nineteen studies were analysed including randomised controlled trials, clinical trials, meta-analyses, and case series. There is no validated modality as the method of choice when assessing response to radioembolisation. CT at 3 months following radioembolisation is the most frequently modality used to assess response to treatment. PET-CT is increasingly being used as it measures functional and radiological aspects. RECIST is the most frequently used criteria. Conclusion. A validated modality to assess response to radioembolisation is needed. We suggest PET-CT and CEA pre- and postradioembolisation at 3 months using RECIST 1.1 criteria released in 2009, which includes criteria for PET-CT, cystic changes, and necrosis.

Microwave coagulation for liver metastases

BACKGROUND

Primary liver cancer and liver metastases from colorectal carcinoma are the two most common malignant tumours to affect the liver. The liver is second only to the lymph nodes as the most common site for metastatic disease. More than half of patients with metastatic liver disease will die from metastatic complications. Microwave coagulation involves placing an electrode into a lesion under ultrasound or computed tomography guidance. The microwave coagulator generates and transmits microwave energy to the electrode. Coagulative necrosis causes cellular death and destroys tissue in the treatment area, resulting in reduction of tumour size.

OBJECTIVES

To study the beneficial and harmful effects of microwave coagulation compared with no intervention, other ablation methods, or systemic treatments in patients with liver metastases.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the Cochrane Hepato-Biliary Group Controlled Trials Register, The Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) in The Cochrane Library, MEDLINE, EMBASE, Science Citation Index Expanded, LILACS, and CINAHL up to December 2012.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included all randomised clinical trials assessing beneficial and harmful effects of microwave coagulation and its comparators, irrespective of the location of the primary tumour.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

We extracted relevant information on participant characteristics, interventions, and study outcomes and data on outcome measures for our review, as well as information on design and methodology of the studies. Bias risk assessment of trials, determination of whether they fulfilled the inclusion criteria, and data extraction from retrieved for final evaluation trials were done by one review author and were checked by a second review author.

MAIN RESULTS

One randomised clinical trial fulfilled the inclusion criteria of the review. Forty participants with multiple liver metastases of colorectal cancer and no evidence of extrahepatic disease were randomly assigned. Thirty of these participants (14 females and 16 males) were included in the analysis: 14 participants received microwave coagulation and 16 underwent conventional surgery (hepatectomy or liver resection). The diagnosis of colorectal cancer (Stage IB to IIIC; tumour (T)2 node (N)0 to T3N2) and liver metastases was confirmed by histological assessment. Mean participant age was 61 years. The tumours were resectable. The risk of bias in the trial was judged to be high.Participants were followed for three years. Mortality at the last follow-up was 64% (9/14) in the microwave group and 75% (12/16) in the conventional surgery group (risk ratio (RR) 0.86; 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.53 to 1.39), that is, no significant difference was observed. In the microwave coagulation group, 71%, 57%, and 14% survived 1, 2, and 3 years, and in the conventional surgery group, the percentages were 69%, 56%, and 23%. The hazard ratio calculated using the Parmar method was 0.91 (0.39 to 2.15).Mean survival time was 27 months in the microwave group and 25 months in the conventional surgery group, and the mean disease-free interval was 11.3 months in the microwave group and 13.3 months in the hepatectomy group. Differences for both outcomes were not statistically significant. Reported frequency of adverse events was similar between the microwave coagulation and conventional surgery groups, except for the required blood transfusion, which was more common in the conventional surgery group. No intervention-related mortality was observed. After treatment, the carcinoembryonic antigen level decreased significantly in both groups.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

On the basis of one randomised clinical trial, which did not describe allocation concealment or blinding, and which excluded from analysis 25% of participants after random assignment, evidence is insufficient to show whether microwave coagulation brings any significant benefit in terms of survival or recurrence compared with conventional surgery for participants with liver metastases from colorectal cancer. The number of adverse events, except for the requirement for blood transfusion, which was more common in the liver resection group, was similar in both groups. At present, microwave therapy cannot be recommended outside randomised clinical trials.

Quantitative functional MRI biomarkers improved early detection of colorectal liver metastases

PURPOSE

To implement and evaluate the performance of a computerized statistical tool designed for robust and quantitative analysis of hemodynamic response imaging (HRI) -derived maps for the early identification of colorectal liver metastases (CRLM).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

CRLM-bearing mice were scanned during the early stage of tumor growth and subsequently during the advanced-stage. Three experienced radiologists marked various suspected-foci on the early stage anatomical images and classified each as either highly certain or as suspected tumors. The statistical model construction was based on HRI maps (functional-MRI combined with hypercapnia and hyperoxia) using a supervised learning paradigm which was further trained either with the advanced-stage sets (late training; LT) or with the early stage sets (early training; ET). For each group of foci, the classifier results were compared with the ground-truth.

RESULTS

The ET-based classification significantly improved the manual classification of the highly certain foci (P < 0.05) and was superior compared with the LT-based classification (P < 0.05). Additionally, the ET-based classification, offered high sensitivity (57-63%), accompanied with high positive predictive value (>94%) and high specificity (>98%) for suspected-foci.

CONCLUSION

The ET-based classifier can strengthen the radiologist's classification of highly certain foci. Additionally, it can aid in classifying suspected-foci, thus enabling earlier intervention which can often be lifesaving.

Immunotherapy for gastrointestinal malignancies

BACKGROUND

Gastrointestinal (GI) cancers are the most common human tumors encountered worldwide. The majority of GI cancers are unresectable at the time of diagnosis, and in the subset of patients undergoing resection, few are cured. There is only a modest improvement in survival with the addition of modalities such as chemotherapy and radiation therapy. Due to an increasing global cancer burden, it is imperative to integrate alternative strategies to improve outcomes. It is well known that cancers possess diverse strategies to evade immune detection and destruction. This has led to the incorporation of various immunotherapeutic strategies, which enable reprogramming of the immune system to allow effective recognition and killing of GI tumors.

METHODS

A review was conducted of the results of published clinical trials employing immunotherapy for esophageal, gastroesophageal, gastric, hepatocellular, pancreatic, and colorectal cancers.

RESULTS

Monoclonal antibody therapy has come to the forefront in the past decade for the treatment of colorectal cancer. Immunotherapeutic successes in solid cancers such as melanoma and prostate cancer have led to the active investigation of immunotherapy for GI malignancies, with some promising results.

CONCLUSIONS

To date, monoclonal antibody therapy is the only immunotherapy approved by the US Food and Drug Administration for GI cancers. Initial trials validating new immunotherapeutic approaches, including vaccination-based and adoptive cell therapy strategies, for GI malignancies have demonstrated safety and the induction of antitumor immune responses. Therefore, immunotherapy is at the forefront of neoadjuvant as well as adjuvant therapies for the treatment and eradication of GI malignancies.

Cryotherapy for liver metastases

BACKGROUND

Primary liver tumours and liver metastases from colorectal carcinoma are the two most common malignant tumours to affect the liver. The liver is second only to the lymph nodes as the most common site for metastatic disease. More than half of the patients with metastatic liver disease will die from metastatic complications. In cryoablation, liquid nitrogen or argon gas is delivered to the liver tumour, guided by ultrasound using a specially designed probe. Ice crystal formation during the rapid freezing process causes destruction of cellular structure and kills the tumour cells.

OBJECTIVES

To study the beneficial and harmful effects of cryotherapy compared with no intervention, other ablation methods, or systemic treatments in patients with liver metastases.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the Cochrane Hepato-Biliary Group Controlled Trials Register, The Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) in The Cochrane Library, MEDLINE, EMBASE, Science Citation Index Expanded, LILACS, and CINAHL up to December 2012.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included all randomised clinical trials assessing the beneficial and harmful effects of cryotherapy and its comparators, irrespective of the location of the primary tumour.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

We extracted relevant information on participant characteristics, interventions, study outcomes, and data on the outcomes for our review, as well as information on the design and methodology of the trials. Bias risk assessment of and data extraction from the trials fulfilling the inclusion criteria were done by one author and checked by a second author.

MAIN RESULTS

One randomised clinical trial fulfilled the inclusion criteria of the review. The trial was judged as a trial with high risk of bias due to the unclear report on the generation of the allocation sequence and allocation concealment, blinding, incomplete outcome data and the selective outcome reporting domain. The trial included 123 consecutive patients with solitary or multiple unilobar or bilobar liver metastases who were randomised into two groups, 63 received cryotherapy and 60 received conventional surgery. There were 36 females and 87 males. The primary sites for the metastases were colorectal (66.6%), stomach (7.3%), breast (6.5%), melanoma (4.9%), ovarian adenocarcinoma (4.1%), uterus (3.3%), kidney (3.3%), intestinal (1.6%), pancreatic (1.6%), and unknown (0.8%). The tumours were resectable and non-resectable.The patients were followed for up to 10 years (minimum five months). Mortality at the last follow-up was 81% (51/63) in the cryotherapy group and 92% (55/60) in the conventional surgery group (RR 0.88; 95% CI 0.77 to 1.02); that is, no statistically significant difference was observed. In the cryotherapy group, 60%, 44%, and 19% of the participants survived 3, 5, and 10 years respectively, while in the conventional surgery group the percentages were 51%, 36%, and 8%. The hazard ratio calculated using the Parmar method was 0.71 (95% confidence interval (CI) 0.47 to 1.09). Recurrence in the liver was observed in 86% (54/63) of the patients in the cryotherapy group and 95% (57/60) of the patients in the conventional surgery group (relative risk (RR) 0.9; 95% CI 0.8 to 1.01); that is, no statistically significant difference was observed. Frequency of reported complications was similar between the cryotherapy group and the conventional surgery group except for postoperative pain. Both insignificant and pronounced pain were reported to be more common in the cryotherapy group while intense pain was reported to be more common in the control group. However, it was not reported by the authors whether the differences were significant. No intervention-related mortality and no bile leakage were observed.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

On the basis of one randomised clinical trial with high risk of bias, there is insufficient evidence to conclude if in patients with liver metastases from various primary sites cryotherapy brings any significant benefit in terms of survival or recurrence compared with conventional surgery. In addition, there is no evidence for the effectiveness of cryotherapy when compared with no intervention. At present, cryotherapy cannot be recommended outside randomised clinical trials.

Percutaneous ethanol injection for liver metastases

BACKGROUND

Primary liver tumours and liver metastases from colorectal carcinoma are the two most common malignant tumours to affect the liver. The liver is second only to the lymph nodes as the most common site for metastatic disease. More than half of the patients with metastatic liver disease will die from metastatic complications. Percutaneous ethanol injection (PEI) causes dehydration and necrosis of tumour cells accompanied by small vessel thrombosis, leading to tumour ischaemia and destruction.

OBJECTIVES

To study the beneficial and harmful effects of percutaneous ethanol injection compared with no intervention, other ablation methods, or systemic treatments in patients with liver metastases.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the Cochrane Hepato-Biliary Group Controlled Trials Register, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) in The Cochrane Library, MEDLINE, EMBASE, Science Citation Index Expanded, LILACS, and CINAHL up to December 2012.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included all randomised clinical trials assessing the beneficial and harmful effects of percutaneous ethanol injection versus no intervention, other ablation methods, or systemic treatments in patients with liver metastases.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

We extracted the relevant information on participant characteristics, interventions, study outcome measures, and data on the outcome measures for our review, as well as information on the design and methodology of the studies. Quality assessment of the trials fulfilling the inclusion criteria and data extraction from the trials retrieved for final evaluation were done by one author and checked by a second author.

MAIN RESULTS

One randomised clinical trial was included, comparing transcatheter arterial chemoembolisation (TACE) + percutaneous intratumour ethanol injection (PEI) versus TACE alone. Forty-eight patients with liver metastases were included; 25 received the intervention with PEI and 23 received TACE alone.Mortality data were not reported. The trial reported the survival data after one, two, and three years. In the TACE + PEI group, 92%, 80%, and 64% of the patients survived after 1, 2, and 3 years respectively; in the TACE group, 78.3%, 65.2%, and 47.8% of the patients survived after 1, 2, and 3 years respectively. The hazard ratio was 0.57 (95% CI 0.19 to 1.67). The local recurrence was 16% in the TACE + PEI group and 39.1% in the TACE group, resulting in a relative risk (RR) of 0.41 (95% CI 0.15 to 1.07). Forty-five tumours (66.2%) out of 68 tumours in total shrunk by at least 25% in the TACE + PEI group versus 31 tumours (48.4%) out of 64 tumours in total in the TACE group (RR 2.08; 95% CI 1.03 to 4.2). The authors reported some adverse events, but with very few details.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

On the basis of one small randomised trial, it can be concluded that addition of PEI to TACE, as compared with TACE alone, in patients with liver metastases seems to bring no clear benefit in terms of survival and local recurrence. The size of the tumour necrosis was larger in the combined treatment group. No intervention-related mortality or major complications were reported. More trials are needed.

Electro-coagulation for liver metastases

BACKGROUND

Primary liver tumours and liver metastases from colorectal carcinoma are the two most common malignant tumours to affect the liver. The liver is second only to the lymph nodes as the most common site for metastatic disease. More than half of the patients with metastatic liver disease will die from metastatic complications. Electro-coagulation is the coagulation (clotting) of tissue using a high-frequency electrical current applied locally with a metal instrument or needle with the aim of stopping bleeding. The object of this technique is to destroy the tumour completely, if possible, in a single surgical session.

OBJECTIVES

To study the beneficial and harmful effects of electro-coagulation compared with no intervention, to other ablation methods, or systemic treatments in patients with liver metastases.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched The Cochrane Hepato-Biliary Group Controlled Trials Register, the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) in The Cochrane Library, MEDLINE, EMBASE, Science Citation Index Expanded, LILACS, and CINAHL up to December 2012.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included one randomised clinical trial that assessed beneficial and harmful effects of electro-coagulation and its comparators in patients with liver metastases, irrespective of the location of the primary tumour.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

We extracted relevant information on participant characteristics, interventions, study outcome measures, and data on the outcome measures as well as information on the design and methodology of the trials. Risk of bias of the trials and data extraction was carried out by one author and checked by a second author.

MAIN RESULTS

We included one randomised clinical trial that compared four groups: electro-coagulation alone, electro-coagulation + dimethyl sulphoxide, electro-coagulation + allopurinol, and control (Salim 1993). The risk of bias in the trial is high. In three groups, patients had their metastases destroyed with diathermy electro-coagulation (current set at No 5) and received: 1) solution of allopurinol by mouth 5 mL 4 x a day or 2) allopurinol by mouth 5 mL (50 mg) 4 x a day or 3) dimethyl sulphoxide by mouth 5 mL (500 mg) 4 x a day. In the control group patients received a solution of allopurinol by mouth 5 mL 4 x a day. The treatment was started in the fifth postoperative day and was continued for five years. Three hundred and six patients who had undergone resection of the sigmoid colon and who had five or more hepatic metastases were included; 75 received electro-coagulation alone (58 were evaluable), 76 received electro-coagulation plus allopurinol (53 were evaluable), 78 received electro-coagulation plus dimethyl sulphoxide (57 were evaluable), and 77 were in the control group (55 evaluable).The authors reported the number of deaths due to disease spread (100% in the control, 98% in electro-coagulation, 87% in electro-coagulation + allopurinol, and 86% in the electro-coagulation + dimethyl sulphoxide groups). There was a significant benefit in favour of the electro-coagulation + allopurinol (risk ratio (RR) 0.87 (95% confidence interval (CI) 0.78 to 0.96)) and electro-coagulation + dimethyl sulphoxide (RR 0.86 (95% CI 0.77 to 0.95)) groups compared to the control group, but no such benefit in the electro-coagulation alone group (RR 0.98 (95% CI 0.95 to 1.02)) compared to the control group. There were no local recurrences, no positive tests for occult blood, and observed pulmonary metastases were always with ultrasonographic evidence of hepatic secondaries and were not significantly different for the experimental groups compared to the control group (electro-coagulation: RR 1.11 (95% CI 0.4 to 3.09)), electro-coagulation + allopurinol (RR 0.86 (95% CI 0.28 to 2.66)), electro-coagulation + dimethyl sulphoxide (RR 0.8 (95% CI 0.26 to 2.48)). None of the adverse events were significantly associated with treatment.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

On the basis of one randomised trial which did not describe its methodology in sufficient detail to assess risk of bias and quality, excluded 27% of patients after randomisation due to various reasons, and is probably not free from selective outcome reporting bias, there is insufficient evidence to conclude that in patients with colonic cancer liver metastases, electro-coagulation alone brings any significant benefit in terms of survival or recurrence compared with the control. In addition, there is insufficient evidence for the effectiveness of adding allopurinol or dimethyl sulphoxide to electro-coagulation. The probability for selective outcome reporting bias in the trial is high. More randomised trials are needed in order to sufficiently validate electro-coagulation with or without co-interventions.

Transarterial (chemo)embolisation versus no intervention or placebo intervention for liver metastases

BACKGROUND

Primary liver tumours and liver metastases from colorectal carcinoma are the two most common malignant tumours to affect the liver. The liver is second only to the lymph nodes as the most common site for metastatic disease. More than half of the patients with metastatic liver disease will die from metastatic complications. Chemoembolisation is based on the concept that the blood supply to hepatic tumours originates predominantly from the hepatic artery. Therefore, embolisation of the hepatic artery can lead to selective necrosis of the liver tumour while it may leave normal parenchyma virtually unaffected.

OBJECTIVES

To study the beneficial and harmful effects of transarterial (chemo)embolisation compared with no intervention or placebo intervention in patients with liver metastases.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the Cochrane Hepato-Biliary Group Controlled Trials Register, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) in The Cochrane Library, MEDLINE, EMBASE, Science Citation Index Expanded, LILACS, and CINAHL up to December 2012.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included all randomised clinical trials assessing beneficial and harmful effects of transarterial (chemo)embolisation compared with no intervention or placebo intervention in patients with liver metastases, no matter the location of the primary tumour.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

We extracted relevant information on participant characteristics, interventions, study outcome measures, and data on the outcome measures for our review as well as information on the design and methodology of the studies. Bias risk assessment of the trials, fulfilling the inclusion criteria, and data extraction from the retrieved final evaluation trials were done by one author and checked by a second author.

MAIN RESULTS

One randomised clinical trial fulfilled the inclusion criteria of the review. Sixty-one patients with colorectal liver metastases were randomised into three intervention groups: 22 received hepatic artery embolisation, 19 received hepatic artery infusion chemotherapy, and 20 were randomised to control, described as "no active therapeutic intervention, although symptomatic treatment was provided whenever necessary". As hepatic artery infusion chemotherapy is not in the scope of this review, we have not included the data from this intervention group. In the remaining two groups that were of interest to the review, 43 of the participants were men and 18 women. Most tumours were synchronous metastases involving up to 75% of the liver and non-resectable. The risk of bias in the trial was judged to be high.Patients were followed-up for a minimum of seven months. Mortality at last follow-up was 86% (19/22) in the hepatic artery embolisation group versus 95% (19/20) in the control group (RR 0.91; 95% CI 0.75 to 1.1), that is, no statistically significant difference was observed. Median survival after trial entry was 7.0 months (range 2 to 44) in the hepatic artery embolisation group and 7.9 months (range 1 to 26) in the control group. Nine out of 22 (41%) in the hepatic artery embolisation group and five out of 20 (25%) in the control group developed evidence of extrahepatic disease (RR 1.64; 95% CI 0.60 to 4.07). Local recurrence was reported for 10 patients in the trial without details about the trial group. Most patients in the embolisation group experienced post-embolic syndrome (82%), and one patient had local haematoma. No other adverse events were reported. The authors did not report if there were any adverse events in the control group.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

On the basis of one small randomised trial that did not describe sequence generation, allocation concealment or blinding, it can be concluded that in patients with liver metastases no significant survival benefit or benefit on extrahepatic recurrence was found in the embolisation group in comparison with the palliation group. The probability for selective outcome reporting bias in the trial is high. At present, transarterial (chemo)embolisation cannot be recommended outside randomised clinical trials.

Transarterial (chemo)embolisation versus no intervention or placebo intervention for liver metastases

BACKGROUND

Primary liver tumours and liver metastases from colorectal carcinoma are the two most common malignant tumours to affect the liver. The liver is second only to the lymph nodes as the most common site for metastatic disease. More than half of the patients with metastatic liver disease will die from metastatic complications. Chemoembolisation is based on the concept that the blood supply to hepatic tumours originates predominantly from the hepatic artery. Therefore, embolisation of the hepatic artery can lead to selective necrosis of the liver tumour while it may leave normal parenchyma virtually unaffected.

OBJECTIVES

To study the beneficial and harmful effects of transarterial (chemo)embolisation compared with no intervention or placebo intervention in patients with liver metastases.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the Cochrane Hepato-Biliary Group Controlled Trials Register, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) in The Cochrane Library, MEDLINE, EMBASE, Science Citation Index Expanded, LILACS, and CINAHL up to November 2011.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included all randomised clinical trials assessing beneficial and harmful effects of transarterial (chemo)embolisation compared with no intervention or placebo intervention in patients with liver metastases, no matter the location of the primary tumour.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

We extracted relevant information on participant characteristics, interventions, study outcome measures, and data on the outcome measures for our review as well as information on the design and methodology of the studies. Bias risk assessment of the trials, fulfilling the inclusion criteria, and data extraction from the retrieved final evaluation trials were done by one author and checked by a second author.

MAIN RESULTS

One randomised clinical trial fulfilled the inclusion criteria of the review. Sixty-one patients with colorectal liver metastases were randomised into three intervention groups: 22 received hepatic artery embolisation, 19 received hepatic artery infusion chemotherapy, and 20 were randomised to control, described as "no active therapeutic intervention, although symptomatic treatment was provided whenever necessary". As hepatic artery infusion chemotherapy is not in the scope of this review, we have not included the data from this intervention group. In the remaining two groups that were of interest to the review, 43 of the participants were men and 18 women. Most tumours were synchronous metastases involving up to 75% of the liver and non-resectable. The risk of bias in the trial was judged to be high.Patients were followed-up for a minimum of seven months. Mortality at last follow-up was 86% (19/22) in the hepatic artery embolisation group versus 95% (19/20) in the control group (RR 0.91; 95% CI 0.75 to 1.1), that is, no statistically significant difference was observed. Median survival after trial entry was 7.0 months (range 2 to 44) in the hepatic artery embolisation group and 7.9 months (range 1 to 26) in the control group. Nine out of 22 (41%) in the hepatic artery embolisation group and five out of 20 (25%) in the control group developed evidence of extrahepatic disease (RR 1.64; 95% CI 0.60 to 4.07). Local recurrence was reported for 10 patients in the trial without details about the trial group. Most patients in the embolisation group experienced post-embolic syndrome (82%), and one patient had local haematoma. No other adverse events were reported. The authors did not report if there were any adverse events in the control group.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

On the basis of one small randomised trial that did not describe sequence generation, allocation concealment or blinding, it can be concluded that in patients with liver metastases no significant survival benefit or benefit on extrahepatic recurrence was found in the embolisation group in comparison with the palliation group. The probability for selective outcome reporting bias in the trial is high. At present, transarterial (chemo)embolisation cannot be recommended outside randomised clinical trials.

Improved efficacy of a novel anti-angiogenic drug combination (TL-118) against colorectal-cancer liver metastases; MRI monitoring in mice

BACKGROUND

The poor prognosis of patients with colorectal-cancer liver metastases (CRLM) and the insufficiency of available treatments have raised the need for alternative curative strategies. We aimed to assess the therapeutic potential of TL-118, a new anti-angiogenic drug combination, for CRLM treatment, in a mouse model.

METHODS

The therapeutic potential of TL-118 was evaluated and compared with B20-4.1.1 (B20; anti-VEGF antibody) and rapamycin in CRLM-bearing mice. Tumour progression and the vascular changes were monitored by MRI. Additionally, mice survival, cell proliferation, apoptosis and vessel density were evaluated.

RESULTS

This study demonstrated an unequivocal advantage to TL-118 therapy by significantly prolonging survival (threefold) and reducing metastasis perfusion and vessel density (ninefold). The underlying mechanism for TL-118-treatment success was associated with hepatic perfusion attenuation resulting from reduced nitric-oxide (NO) serum levels as elucidated by using hemodynamic response imaging (HRI, a functional MRI combined with hypercapnia and hyperoxia). Further, systemic hepatic perfusion reduction during the initial treatment phase by adding NO inhibitor has proven to be essential for reaching maximal therapeutic effects for both TL-118 and B20.

CONCLUSION

TL-118 harbours a potential clinical benefit to CLRM patients. Moreover, the reduction of hepatic perfusion at early stages of anti-angiogenic therapies by adding NO inhibitor is crucial for achieving maximal anti-tumour effects.

The effect of postoperative pelvic irradiation after complete resection of metastatic rectal cancer

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

The 2010 NCCN clinical practice guidelines recommend radiation as a part of the standard adjuvant or neoadjuvant treatment for stage IV rectal cancer patients. This study evaluated the oncologic efficacy of postoperative radiotherapy (RTx) in loco-regional control after complete removal of primary and metastatic lesions in stage IV rectal cancer.

METHODS

Sixty-eight patients with metastatic rectal cancer were enrolled and analyzed. Twenty-eight of the enrolled patients received concurrent postoperative RTx with chemotherapy (RTx group) and the remaining 40 received only postoperative systemic chemotherapy (CTx) without RTx (non-RTx group). The eligibility criteria were as follows: a primary rectal tumor located in the low or mid-rectum, no postoperative macroscopic and microscopic evidence of residual tumor in primary and metastatic sites, and no history of prior CTx or pelvic RTx.

RESULTS

The recurrence rates were 75.0% in the RTx group and 72.5% in the non-RTx group. Local recurrence rates were 7.1% (RTx group) and 22.5% (non-RTx group) (P = 0.108). There were no differences in overall survival (OS), local recurrence-free survival, and disease-free survival between the two groups. The 2-year OS rates were 78.9% (RTx group) and 74.1% (non-RTx group) (P = 0.395).

CONCLUSIONS

Survival benefit of postoperative RTx in stage IV rectal cancer after complete removal of tumors was not apparent. RTx could be recommended for selected patients at high risk of local recurrence or for palliation of symptoms.

Clinical impact of FDG PET-CT in patients with potentially operable metastatic colorectal cancer

AIM

To assess the clinical impact of 2-[(18)F]-fluoro-2-deoxy-d-glucose (FDG) positron-emission tomography-computed tomography (PET-CT) in patients with potentially resectable metastatic colorectal cancer.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

One hundred and two patients with potentially resectable metastatic colorectal cancer underwent FDG PET-CT in addition to conventional imaging over an 18-month period. The findings were compared to conventional imaging, with histological or clinico-radiological validation. The impact on subsequent management was evaluated using information from clinico-radiological databases.

RESULTS

Of 102 patients (mean age 67 years, range 27-85 years), 94 had liver, five had isolated lung, and three had limited peritoneal metastases. In 31 patients (30%) PET-CT had a major impact on subsequent management, by correctly clarifying indeterminate lesions on conventional imaging as inoperable metastatic disease in 16 patients, detecting previously unsuspected metastatic disease in nine patients, identifying occult second primary tumours in three patients, and correctly down-staging three patients. PET-CT had a minor impact in 12 patients (12%), no impact in 49 cases (48%), and a potentially negative impact in 10 cases (10%). Following PET-CT, 36 (35%) patients were no longer considered for surgery. Of those remaining operative 45 of 66 (68%) underwent potentially curative metastatic surgery. In this cohort PET-CT saved 16 futile laparotomies.

CONCLUSION

FDG PET-CT has a valuable role in selected patients with metastatic colorectal cancer by improving staging accuracy and characterizing indeterminate lesions and helps triage patients to the appropriate treatment.

The engagement of selectins and their ligands in colorectal cancer liver metastases

The colonization of the liver by colorectal cancer (CRC) cells is a complicated process which includes many stages, until macrometastases occur. The entrapment of malignant cells within the hepatic sinusoids and their interactions with resident non-parenchymal cells are considered very important for the whole metastatic sequence. In the sinusoids, cell connection and signalling is mediated by multiple cell adhesion molecules, such as the selectins. The three members of the selectin family, E-, P- and L-selectin, in conjunction with sialylated Lewis ligands and CD44 variants, regulate colorectal cell communication and adhesion with platelets, leucocytes, sinusoidal endothelial cells and stellate cells. Their role in CRC liver metastases has been investigated in animal models and human tissue, in vivo and in vitro, in static and shear flow conditions, and their key-function in several molecular pathways has been displayed. Therefore, trials have already commenced aiming to exploit selectins and their ligands in the treatment of benign and malignant diseases. Multiple pharmacological agents have been developed that are being tested for potential therapeutic applications.

Altered efficacy of AT1R-targeted treatment after spontaneous cancer cell-AT1R upregulation

BACKGROUND

Targeting of the renin angiotensin system (RAS) reduces tumour growth in experimental models of cancer. We aimed to establish if combined targeting of the 'classical' and 'alternative' arms of the RAS could result in synergistic inhibition of colorectal cancer (CRC) liver metastases.

METHODS

Immediately following induction of CRC liver metastases through intrasplenic injection of murine CRC cells, treatment with irbesartan (AT1R blocker; 50 mg/kg/day s.c.), captopril (ACE inhibitor; 750 mg/kg/day i.p.), CGP42112A (AT2R agonist; 0.6 μg/kg/hr i.p.), and/or ANG-(1-7) (24 μg/kg/hr i.p.) began and continued for 21 days. Liver to body weight ratio and/or stereology were used as a measure of tumour burden. Immunohistochemistry was used to determine AT1R and VEGF expression as well as proliferation (Ki67), apoptosis (active caspase 3) and angiogenesis (CD34).

RESULTS

Combined RAS therapies failed to improve upon single arm therapies. However, while irbesartan previously inhibited tumour growth in this model, in the current experiments irbesartan failed to affect tumour burden. Subsequent analysis showed a cancer-cell specific upregulation of the angiotensin II type I receptor (AT1R) in irbesartan-insensitive compared to irbesartan-sensitive tumours. The upregulation of AT1R was associated with an increase in proliferation and VEGF expression by cancer cells. While animals bearing irbesartan-sensitive tumours showed a marked decrease in the number of proliferating cells in the liver and VEGF-expressing infiltrating cells in the tumour following AT1R treatment, these were unchanged by treatment in animals bearing irbesartan-insensitive (high AT1R expressing) tumours.

CONCLUSIONS

Although the results do not support increased efficacy of combined treatment, they provide intriguing evidence of the importance of RAS expression in determining patient response and tumour growth potential and suggest that components of the RAS could be used as biomarkers to aid in patient selection.

Vascular profile characterization of liver tumors by magnetic resonance imaging using hemodynamic response imaging in mice

Recently, we have demonstrated the feasibility of using hemodynamic response imaging (HRI), a functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) method combined with hypercapnia and hyperoxia, for monitoring vascular changes during liver pathologies without the need of contrast material. In this study, we evaluated HRI ability to assess changes in liver tumor vasculature during tumor establishment, progression, and antiangiogenic therapy. Colorectal adenocarcinoma cells were injected intrasplenically to model colorectal liver metastasis (CRLM) and the Mdr2 knockout mice were used to model primary hepatic tumors. Hepatic perfusion parameters were evaluated using the HRI protocol and were compared with contrast-enhanced (CE) MRI. The hypovascularity and the increased arterial blood supply in well-defined CRLM were demonstrated by HRI. In CRLM-bearing mice, the entire liver perfusion was attenuated as the HRI maps were significantly reduced by 35%. This study demonstrates that the HRI method showed enhanced sensitivity for small CRLM (1-2 mm) detection compared with CE-MRI (82% versus 38%, respectively). In addition, HRI could demonstrate the vasculature alteration during CRLM progression (arborized vessels), which was further confirmed by histology. Moreover, HRI revealed the vascular changes induced by rapamycin treatment. Finally, HRI facilitates primary hepatic tumor characterization with good correlation to the pathologic differentiation. The HRI method is highly sensitive to subtle hemodynamic changes induced by CRLM and, hence, can function as an imaging tool for understanding the hemodynamic changes occurring during CRLM establishment, progression, and antiangiogenic treatment. In addition, this method facilitated the differentiation between different types of hepatic lesions based on their vascular profile noninvasively.

Hepatic resection for colorectal liver metastases

Colorectal adenocarcinoma remains the third most common cause of cancer death in the United States, with an estimated 146,000 new cases and 50,000 deaths annually. Survival is stage dependent, and the presence of liver metastases is a primary determinant in patient survival. Approximately 25% of new cases will present with synchronous colorectal liver metastases (CLM), and up to one-half will develop CLM during the course of their disease. The importance of safe and effective therapies for CLM cannot be overstated. Safe and appropriately aggressive multimodality therapy for CLM can provide most patients with liver-dominant colorectal metastases with extended survival and an improved quality of life.

Targeting the angiotensin II type 2 receptor (AT2R) in colorectal liver metastases

BACKGROUND

Blockade of the angiotensin (ANG) II type 1 receptor (AT1R) inhibits tumour growth in several cancers, including colorectal cancer (CRC) liver metastases. While AT1R blockade has been extensively studied, the potential of targeting the antagonistically acting AT2R in cancer has not been investigated. This study examined the effect of AT2R activation with the agonist CGP42112A in a mouse model of CRC liver metastases.

RESULTS

In vitro, mouse CRC cell (MoCR) proliferation was inhibited by treatment with CGP42112A in a dose dependent manner while apoptosis was increased. Immunofluorescent staining for key signalling and secondary messengers, PLA2 and iNOS, were also increased by CGP42112A treatment in vitro. Immunohistochemical staining for proliferation (PCNA) and the apoptosis (active caspase 3) markers confirmed a CGP42112A-associated inhibition of proliferation and induction of apoptosis of mouse CRC cells (MoCR) in vivo. However, angiogenesis and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) appeared to be increased by CGP42112A treatment in vivo. This increase in VEGF secretion by MoCRs was confirmed in vitro. Despite this apparent pro-angiogenic effect, a syngenic orthotopic mouse model of CRC liver metastases showed a reduction in liver to body weight ratio, an indication of tumour burden, following CGP42112A treatment compared to untreated controls.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that AT2R activation might provide a novel target to inhibit tumour growth. Its potential to stimulate angiogenesis could be compensated by combination with anti-angiogenic agents.

Radiosurgery of liver tumors: value of robotic radiosurgical device to treat liver tumors

BACKGROUND

The treatment of isolated liver metastases has become a rapidly developing field with many new, technically advanced methods. Here we present the therapeutic efficacy of a robotic radiosurgery for local control of liver metastases from solid tumors.

METHODS

Patients with tumorous lesions to the liver, not qualifying for surgery, were treated with single-session radiosurgery (24 Gy) that used robotic image-guided real-time tumor tracking. All detectable lesions had to be irradiated. In a prospective analysis, follow-up was performed by magnetic resonance imaging scanning 2 months after the treatment, and subsequently at 3-month intervals to evaluate local control. For inclusion into the radiosurgery treatment protocol, tumor volumes had to be <90 ml.

RESULTS

Thirty-six patients (median age, 65 years) with a total of 54 target lesions were evaluated. Single lesions were treated in 23 patients and multiple targets in 13 patients. Metastases originated from colon cancer (n = 19), ovarian cancer (n = 3), pancreatic cancer (n = 2), breast cancer (n = 2), and others (n = 6). Four lesions were of primary liver origin (hepatocellular carcinoma and cholangiocellular carcinoma). Median tumor volume was 18 ml (range, 2.2-90 ml). The median follow-up was 21.3 months. The disease of 25 patients (69.4%) showed complete or partial local response, 6 patients (16.7%) had stable lesions, and 5 patients (14%) experienced local recurrence. Grade 2-4 adverse events due to radiation treatment were not observed.

CONCLUSIONS

Robotic radiosurgery with image-guided real-time tumor tracking of liver neoplasm is a new and promising approach for patients with disease that is not eligible for surgical resection and might enhance the possibilities of multidisciplinary oncological treatment concepts.

Ten years experience of managing the primary tumours in patients with stage IV colorectal cancers

INTRODUCTION

Approximately 20% of patients with colorectal cancer have metastases at the time of presentation. Such patients are often offered systemic chemotherapy but debate continues as to whether these patients benefit from resection of the primary tumour. We describe our ten years experience of managing the primary tumours in patients with stage IV colorectal cancer. The aim of this study was to describe the overall survival of patients undergoing surgery in these circumstances and to determine whether any prognostic indicators could be identified.

PATIENTS & METHODS

920 consecutive patients presenting with stage IV colorectal cancer disease were identified from the Leicester Colorectal Cancer database. Patients undergoing resection of the primary tumour (Resection Group) with the residual metastatic disease were compared to those patients who had not their primary tumour excised (Non-Resection Group). Various different variables in two groups were compared by using Mann-Whitney U test. Kaplan-Meier survival analysis and log-rank test were used to compare the overall survivals. Univariate analysis was performed for each group to elicit the significant prognostic factors whereas Cox regression model was used to identify the independent predictors of overall survival.

RESULTS

The Kaplan-Meier survival analysis of two groups showed prolonged survival for Resection Group compared to the Non-Resection Group (median; 14.5 Vs 5.83 months, p = <0.005). The multivariate analysis of different survival predicting variables, revealed the resection of the primary tumour as an independent predictor of overall survival (p < 0.001). The univariate analysis of resection group identified age at presentation, tumour site, tumour stage (pT), lymph nodal stage (pN), complete histological resection, tumour fixity, ASA grade, mode of surgery, post-operative chemotherapy and sites of metastasis as significant factors (p < 0.05) for survival prediction. When these factors were used in Cox-Regression model, only the age at presentation (p = 0.001), tumour fixity (p = 0.012) and lymph nodal involvement (p = 0.042) were independent predictors for overall survival. Treatment with post-operative chemotherapy and a smaller volume of liver metastases were associated with prolonged survival (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Surgical resection of primary tumour for stage IV colorectal cancers is associated with prolonged survival for selected patients. Age at presentation, extent of liver involvement, tumour fixity and ASA grade can help to decide the patients who will benefit from surgery.

Role of Kupffer cells in the outgrowth of colorectal cancer liver metastases

Colorectal cancer is one of the commonest malignancies in the "developed" world. The liver constitutes the main host organ for its distant metastases which, when present, augur a bad prognosis for the disease. Kupffer cells (KCs) are macrophages that constantly reside within the liver and form an effective first line defence against multiple harmful agents which reach the hepatic sinusoids via the portal circulation. KCs remove chemical compounds and dead or damaged cells, eliminate bacteria and protect against invading tumour cells. They may play a crucial tumouricidal role, exerting cytotoxic and cytostatic functions through the release of multiple cytokines and chemokines. Subsequently, colorectal metastasising cells are destroyed either by KC-performed phagocytosis or via the stimulation of other immune cells which migrate into the sinusoids and act accordingly. On the contrary, KC products, including cytokines, growth factors and matrix-degrading enzymes may promote liver metastasis, supporting tumour cell extravasation, motility and invasion. Current research aims to exploit the antineoplastic properties of KCs in new therapeutic approaches of colorectal cancer liver metastasis. Numerous agents, such as the granulocyte macrophage-colony stimulating factor, interferon gamma, muramyl peptide analogues and various antibody based treatments, have been tested in experimental models with promising results. Future trials may investigate their use in everyday clinical practice and compare their therapeutic value with current treatment of the disease.

Fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy of chemotherapy-induced apoptosis resistance in a syngenic mouse tumor model

During cancer therapy with DNA-damaging drug-agents, the development of secondary resistance to apoptosis can be observed. In the search for novel therapeutic approaches that can be used in these cases, we monitored chemotherapy-induced apoptosis resistance in a syngenic mouse tumor model. For this, syngenic murine colorectal carcinoma cells, which stably expressed a FRET-based caspase-3 activity sensor, were introduced into animals to induce peritoneal carcinomatosis or disseminated hepatic metastases. This syngenic system allowed in vitro, in vivo and ex vivo analysis of chemotherapy induced apoptosis induction by optically monitoring the caspase-3 sensor state in the tumor cells. Tumor tissue analysis of 5-FU treated mice showed the selection of 5-FU-induced apoptosis resistant tumor cells. These and chemo-naive fluorescent tumor cells could be re-isolated from treated and untreated mice and propagated in cell culture. Re-exposure to 5-FU and second line treatment modalities in this ex-vivo setting showed that 5-FU induced apoptosis resistance could be alleviated by imatinib mesylate (Gleevec). We thus show that syngenic mouse systems that stably express a FRET-based caspase-3 sensor can be employed to analyse the therapeutic efficiency of apoptosis inducing chemotherapy.

Update and review of the multidisciplinary management of stage IV colorectal cancer with liver metastases

Background

The management of stage IV colorectal cancer with liver metastases has historically involved a multidisciplinary approach. In the last several decades, there have been great strides made in the therapeutic options available to treat these patients with advancements in medical, surgical, locoregional and adjunctive therapies available to patients with colorectal liver metastases(CLM). As a result, there have been improvements in patient care and survival. Naturally, the management of CLM has become increasingly complex in coordinating the various aspects of care in order to optimize patient outcomes.

Review

A review of historical and up to date literature was undertaken utilizing Medline/PubMed to examine relevant topics of interest in patients with CLM including criterion for resectability, technical/surgical considerations, chemotherapy, adjunctive and locoregional therapies. This review explores the various disciplines and modalities to provide current perspectives on the various options of care for patients with CLM.

Conclusion

Improvements in modern day chemotherapy as allowed clinicians to pursue a more aggressive surgical approach in the management of stage IV colorectal cancer with CLM. Additionally, locoregional and adjunctive therapies has expanded the armamentarium of treatment options available. As a result, the management of patients with CLM requires a comprehensive, multidisciplinary approach utilizing various modalities and a more aggressive approach may now be pursued in patients with stage IV colorectal cancer with CLM to achieve optimal outcomes.

The management of colorectal liver metastases: Expanding the role of hepatic resection in the age of multimodal therapy

Colorectal cancer (CRC) caused nearly 204,000 deaths in Europe in 2004. Despite recent advances in the treatment of advanced disease, which include the incorporation of two new cytotoxic agents irinotecan and oxaliplatin into first-line regimens, the concept of planned sequential therapy involving three active agents during the course of a patient's treatment and the integrated use of targeted monoclonal antibodies, the 5-year survival rates for patients with advanced CRC remain unacceptably low. For patients with colorectal liver metastases, liver resection offers the only potential for cure. This review, based on the outcomes of a meeting of European experts (surgeons and medical oncologists), considers the current treatment strategies available to patients with CRC liver metastases, the criteria for the selection of those patients most likely to benefit and suggests where future progress may occur.

Utility of a tumor-mimic model for the evaluation of the accuracy of HIFU treatments. results of in vitro experiments in the liver

Presented in this article is a tumor-mimic model that allows the evaluation, before clinical trials, of the targeting accuracy of a high intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) device for the treatment of the liver. The tumor-mimic models are made by injecting a warm solution that polymerizes in hepatic tissue and forms a 1 cm discrete lesion that is detectable by ultrasound imaging and gross pathology. First, the acoustical characteristics of the tumor-mimics model were measured in order to determine if this model could be used as a target for the evaluation of the accuracy of HIFU treatments without modifying HIFU lesions in terms of size, shape and homogeneity. On average (n = 10), the attenuation was 0.39 +/- 0.05 dB.cm(-1) at 1 MHz, the ultrasound propagation velocity was 1523 +/- 1 m.s(-1) and the acoustic impedance was 1.84 +/- 0.00 MRayls. Next, the tumor-mimic models were used in vitro in order to verify, at a preclinical stage, that lesions created by HIFU devices guided by ultrasound imaging are properly positioned in tissues. The HIFU device used in this study is a 256-element phased-array toroid transducer working at a frequency of 3 MHz with an integrated ultrasound imaging probe working at a frequency of 7.5 MHz. An initial series of in vitro experiments has shown that there is no significant difference in the dimensions of the HIFU lesions created in the liver with or without tumor-mimic models (p = 0.3049 and p = 0.8796 for the diameter and depth, respectively). A second in vitro study showed that HIFU treatments performed on five tumor-mimics with safety margins of at least 1 mm were properly positioned. The margins obtained were on average 9.3 +/- 2.7 mm (min. 3.0 - max. 20.0 mm). This article presents in vitro evidence that these tumor-mimics are identifiable by ultrasound imaging, they do not modify the geometry of HIFU lesions and, thus, they constitute a viable model of tumor-mimics indicated for HIFU therapy.

Resection versus no intervention or other surgical interventions for colorectal cancer liver metastases

BACKGROUND

About one in four of patients with metastatic colorectal cancer have metastases isolated to the liver, of which 10% to 25% are eligible for ablation of the liver metastases, improving the five year survival rate. Treatments include hepatic resection and other modalities using cryosurgery and radiofrequency thermal ablation. Although new modalities allow safe ablation of liver metastases without the need for surgical intervention, there are still no clear guidelines on the appropriate management of patients with colorectal cancer and hepatic metastases.

OBJECTIVES

The primary objectives were to compare resection of liver metastases to no intervention and other modalities of intervention (including cryosurgery and radiofrequency ablation) in terms of the benefits and harms for each intervention.

SEARCH STRATEGY

Searches were conducted of the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, MEDLINE and EMBASE databases up to October 2006. In addition, references were scrutinized in identified eligible trials.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Only randomized controlled trials reporting patients (regardless of age and sex) who had had curative surgery for adenocarcinoma of the colon or rectum, had been diagnosed with liver metastases and who were eligible for liver resection (i.e. with no evidence of primary or metastatic cancer elsewhere) were considered.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two review authors independently extracted data using a form designed for this review. Discrepancies were resolved by consensus.

MAIN RESULTS

Only one trial involving 123 people (87 male 36 female) was included. The data from this ten year prospective, randomized clinical trial suggest that hepatic cryosurgery is effective in the treatment of resectable and nonresectable liver metastases. The results show intra-operative tumor reduction (>/=90% or </= 97%) and extended higher survival in these patients. The study indicated a five year and ten year survival rate of 44% and 19% after cryosurgery, respectively. However, it was not possible to separate out and unravel the outcomes data that related only to the participants (66.6%) with liver metastases from colorectal cancer as opposed to those with liver metastases from other primary tumors.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

There is currently insufficient evidence to support a single approach, either surgical or non-surgical, for the management of colorectal liver metastases. Therefore, treatment decisions should continue to be based on individual circumstances and clinician's experience. The authors conclude that local ablative therapies are probably useful, but that they need to be further evaluated in a randomized controlled trial.