Prime Time Sexual Harassment

The subtle spreading of sexist norms

Even when overt sexism and prejudice become rarer, social norms that perpetuate inequality are remarkably persistent. The present research lays out one of the subtle ways in which sexist norms may spread through society, by pointing to the role of responses to sexism. We investigate how third parties infer social norms about sexism when observing social interactions. In three studies among male students (Studies 1 and 2) and male and female students (Study 3), we demonstrate that subtle variations in how people respond to a sexist statement can have a substantial influence on inferences third parties make about sexist norms. Specifically, when a sexist statement is made and the conversation continues in a smoothly flowing fashion, third parties infer that this opinion is shared among interaction partners, perceived as appropriate, and that sexism is normative among them. However, when a sexist statement is followed by a brief silence that disrupts the flow of the conversation, observers think that it is contentious and that sexism is neither shared nor normative. Importantly, the effects of the manipulation generalized to the perception of sexist descriptive norms among male students in general. We conclude that social and cultural norms are not just inferred from conversation content, but also from conversational flow.

Media-Induced Sexual Harassment: The Routes from Sexually Objectifying Media to Sexual Harassment

Media that sexually objectify women by portraying them in ways that emphasize physical beauty and sexual readiness as well as reduce them to decorative and sexual objects have been traditionally identified by scholars as a powerful cultural risk factor encouraging sexual harassment and sexual violence. In the present article we review the existing empirical evidence linking sexually objectifying media and sexual harassment of women to the overarching and integrative Media-Induced Sexual Harassment framework. This framework offers a coherent scheme for explaining the effects of sexually objectifying media on three target groups directly involved in sexual harassment—perpetrators, victims, and bystanders—and it postulates three cognitive and emotional mechanisms through which sexually objectifying media lead to sexual harassment: dehumanization, disruption of emphatic resonance, and a shift in gender norms. The evidence reviewed on the basis of the Media-Induced Sexual Harassment framework shows that sexually objectifying media converge in normalizing harassing behaviors and can be a causal risk factor for increasing engagement in sexual harassment, heightening victims’ acceptance of sexual harassment and discouraging bystander intervention. We discuss implications of these arguments for effectively preventing negative effects of exposure to sexually objectifying media and for education programs aimed at critical media-consumption.

The Relationship of Yoga, Body Awareness, and Body Responsiveness to Self-Objectification and Disordered Eating

Study 1 tested whether yoga practice is associated with greater awareness of and responsiveness to bodily sensations, lower self-objectification, greater body satisfaction, and fewer disordered eating attitudes. Three samples of women (43 yoga, 45 aerobic, and 51 nonyoga/nonaerobic practitioners) completed questionnaire measures. As predicted, yoga practitioners reported more favorably on all measures. Body responsiveness, and, to some extent, body awareness significantly explained group differences in self-objectification, body satisfaction, and disordered eating attitudes. The mediating role of body awareness, in addition to body responsiveness, between self-objectification and disordered eating attitudes was also tested as proposed in objectification theory ( Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997 ). Body responsiveness, but not awareness, mediated the relationship between self-objectification and disordered eating attitudes. This finding was replicated in Study 2 in a sample of female undergraduate students. It is concluded that body responsiveness and, to some extent, body awareness are related to self-objectification and its consequences.

Objectifying Media

Across two studies, we investigated the hypothesis that exposure to objectifying television in which women are shown as sexual objects increases the likelihood of harassing conduct. In both studies ( Ns = 141; 120), male participants were exposed to one of the three TV clips in which women were portrayed (a) as sexual objects (objectifying TV), (b) in professional roles, or (c) excluded (a nature documentary). Study 1 showed that men exposed to objectifying TV reported greater proclivity to engage in sexual coercion and manifested more gender-harassing behavior than participants in the other conditions. Study 2 further demonstrated that exposure to objectifying TV increased participants’ conformity to masculine gender role norms, which, in turn, mediated the relation between experimental condition and gender harassment. Together, the two studies suggest that media content plays a central role in activating harassment-related social norms, which in turn encourage or inhibit harassing conduct.

Pornography Consumption and Opposition to Affirmative Action for Women

Despite the persistence of wage gaps and other indicators of discrimination, many Americans oppose affirmative action for women. Our study investigated a potential source of social influence that has often been hypothesized to reduce compassion and sympathy for women: pornography. National panel data were employed. Data were gathered in 2006, 2008, and 2010 from 190 adults ranging in age from 19 to 88 at baseline. Pornography viewing was indexed via reported consumption of pornographic movies. Attitudes toward affirmative action were indexed via opposition to hiring and promotion practices that favor women. Contrary to a selective-exposure perspective on media use, prior opposition to affirmative action did not predict subsequent pornography viewing. Consistent with a social learning perspective on media effects, prior pornography viewing predicted subsequent opposition to affirmative action even after controlling for prior affirmative action attitudes and a number of other potential confounds. Gender did not moderate this association. Practically, these results suggest that pornography may be a social influence that undermines support for affirmative action programs for women. Theoretically, these results align with the perspective that sexual media activate abstract scripts for social behavior which may be applied to judgments that extend beyond the specific interaction patterns depicted.

Journalists and gender-based violence in Ibadan, Nigeria

Violence against women (VAW) continues to occur in many countries of the world despite various measures taken to stop it. The media can shape the attitudes and perceptions of people and can be an advocate for social change. Thus an assessment of the knowledge, attitude and coverage of prevention of VAW by 230 media practitioners in Nigeria was conducted using semi-structured self-administered questionnaires. Results of the survey revealed that 86 of the 230 (37%) stated that both sexes have equal privileges and rights, while 78 (34%) felt that violence could help to keep women 'in check' or in control. Mean knowledge score out of 10 was 7.5 +/- 2.1, while attitude scores out of 11 were 6.4 +/- 1.2. Two main groups of journalist were identified: prejudiced, (105, 46%), and non-prejudiced (125, 54%). The non-prejudiced group consisted mostly of females (p<0.05), over the age of 36 (p<0.05), and held senior positions within their profession (p>0.05). Female media practitioners had significantly higher knowledge and attitude scores than their male counterparts (7.47 +/- 2.0 versus 6.39 +/- 2.3) and (6.27 +/- 2.0 versus 5.11 +/- 6.1). Ninety respondents (39%) had worked on prevention of VAW in the last two years. Most of these (60, 67%) had worked on one-off programmes. Regular programmes usually consisted of 30-minutes or one-hour weekly programmes on radio and television as well as articles in the newspapers. Enlightening the public (41%) and 'portraying women in a successful light' (12%) were some of the activities the practitioners were ready to embark upon. Media practitioners need first of all comprehensive training on VAW, which should be followed by increased coverage of prevention of VAW in the media. Finally, more interactive media engagement with the public should be employed. Media organisations for women may be useful in initiating some of these changes.