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Li M, Cong Y, Li Y, Zhong S, Wang R, Li H, Duan L. Insight Into the Binding Mechanism of p53/pDIQ-MDMX/MDM2 With the Interaction Entropy Method. Front Chem 2019; 7:33. [PMID: 30761293 PMCID: PMC6361799 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2019.00033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2018] [Accepted: 01/14/2019] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The study of the p53-MDMX/MDM2 binding sites is a research hotspot for tumor drug design. The inhibition of p53-targeted MDMX/MDM2 has become an effective approach in anti-tumor drug development. In this paper, a theoretically rigorous and computationally accurate method, namely, the interaction entropy (IE) method, combined with the polarized protein-specific charge (PPC) force field, is used to explore the difference in the binding mechanism between p53-MDMX and p53-MDM2. The interaction of a 12mer peptide inhibitor (pDIQ), which is similar to p53 in structure, with MDMX/MDM2 is also studied. The results demonstrate that p53/pDIQ with MDM2 generates a stronger interaction than with MDMX. Compared to p53, pDIQ has larger binding free energies with MDMX and MDM2. According to the calculated binding free energies, the differences in the binding free energy among the four complexes that are obtained from the combination of PPC and IE are more consistent with the experimental values than with the results from the combination of the non-polarizable AMBER force field and IE. In addition, according to the decomposition of the binding free energy, the van der Waals (vdW) interactions are the main driving force for the binding of the four complexes. They are also the main source of the weaker binding affinity of p53/pDIQ-MDMX relative to p53/pDIQ-MDM2. Compared with p53-MDMX/MDM2, according to the analysis of the residue decomposition, the predicated total residue contributions are higher in pDIQ-MDMX/MDM2 than in p53-MDMX/MDM2, which explains why pDIQ has higher binding affinity than p53 with MDMX/MDM2. The current study provides theoretical guidance for understanding the binding mechanisms and designing a potent dual inhibitor that is targeted to MDMX/MDM2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengxin Li
- School of Physics and Electronics, Shandong Normal University, Jinan, China
| | - Yalong Cong
- School of Physics and Electronics, Shandong Normal University, Jinan, China
| | - Yuchen Li
- School of Physics and Electronics, Shandong Normal University, Jinan, China
| | - Susu Zhong
- School of Physics and Electronics, Shandong Normal University, Jinan, China
| | - Ran Wang
- School of Physics and Electronics, Shandong Normal University, Jinan, China
| | - Hao Li
- School of Physics and Electronics, Shandong Normal University, Jinan, China.,Department of Science and Technology, Shandong Normal University, Jinan, China
| | - Lili Duan
- School of Physics and Electronics, Shandong Normal University, Jinan, China
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2
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Wu L, He Y, Hu Y, Lu H, Cao Z, Yi X, Wang J. Real-time surface plasmon resonance monitoring of site-specific phosphorylation of p53 protein and its interaction with MDM2 protein. Analyst 2019; 144:6033-6040. [DOI: 10.1039/c9an01121h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Real-time monitoring of site-specific phosphorylation of p53 protein and its binding to MDM2 is conducted using dual-channel surface plasmon resonance (SPR).
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Affiliation(s)
- Ling Wu
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
- Central South University
- Changsha
- P. R. China 410083
| | - Yuhan He
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
- Central South University
- Changsha
- P. R. China 410083
| | - Yuqing Hu
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
- Central South University
- Changsha
- P. R. China 410083
| | - Hanwen Lu
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
- Central South University
- Changsha
- P. R. China 410083
| | - Zhong Cao
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Materials Protection for Electric Power and Transportation
- School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering
- Changsha University of Science and Technology
- Changsha
- P. R. China 410114
| | - Xinyao Yi
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
- Central South University
- Changsha
- P. R. China 410083
| | - Jianxiu Wang
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
- Central South University
- Changsha
- P. R. China 410083
- Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Water Environment and Agriculture Product Safety
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3
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Mobegi FM, Zomer A, de Jonge MI, van Hijum SAFT. Advances and perspectives in computational prediction of microbial gene essentiality. Brief Funct Genomics 2017; 16:70-79. [PMID: 26857942 DOI: 10.1093/bfgp/elv063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The minimal subset of genes required for cellular growth, survival and viability of an organism are classified as essential genes. Knowledge of essential genes gives insight into the core structure and functioning of a cell. This might lead to more efficient antimicrobial drug discovery, to elucidation of the correlations between genotype and phenotype, and a better understanding of the minimal requirements for a (synthetic) cell. Traditionally, constructing a catalog of essential genes for a given microbe involved costly and time-consuming laboratory experiments. While experimental methods have produced abundant gene essentiality data for model organisms like Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis, the knowledge generated cannot automatically be extrapolated to predict essential genes in all bacteria. In addition, essential genes identified in the laboratory are by definition 'conditionally essential', as they are essential under the specified experimental conditions: these might not resemble conditions in the microorganisms' natural habitat(s). Also, large-scale experimental assaying for essential genes is not always feasible because of the time investment required to setup these assays. The ability to rapidly and precisely identify essential genes in silico is therefore important and has great potential for applications in medicine, biotechnology and basic biological research. Here, we review the advances made in the use of computational methods to predict microbial gene essentiality, perspectives for the future of these techniques and the possible practical applications of essential genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fredrick M Mobegi
- Laboratory of Pediatric Infectious Diseases and Centre for Molecular and Biomolecular Informatics, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Aldert Zomer
- Radboud university medical center, Laboratory of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.,Radboud university medical center, Bacterial Genomics Group; Center for Molecular and Biomolecular Informatics, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Marien I de Jonge
- Laboratory of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Radboudumc, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Sacha A F T van Hijum
- Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Laboratory of Paediatric Infectious Diseases, Radboud University Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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4
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Ishiba H, Noguchi T, Shu K, Ohno H, Honda K, Kondoh Y, Osada H, Fujii N, Oishi S. Investigation of the inhibitory mechanism of apomorphine against MDM2–p53 interaction. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2017; 27:2571-2574. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2017.03.082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2017] [Revised: 03/23/2017] [Accepted: 03/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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5
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Yang XX, Gu W, Liang L, Yan HL, Wang YF, Bi Q, Zhang T, Yu J, Rao GX. Screening for the bioactive constituents of traditional Chinese medicines—progress and challenges. RSC Adv 2017. [DOI: 10.1039/c6ra25765h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The search for lead compounds from traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) may be promising for new drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xing-Xin Yang
- College of Pharmaceutical Science
- Yunnan University of Traditional Chinese Medicine
- Kunming 650500
- P. R. China
| | - Wen Gu
- College of Pharmaceutical Science
- Yunnan University of Traditional Chinese Medicine
- Kunming 650500
- P. R. China
| | - Li Liang
- College of Pharmaceutical Science
- Yunnan University of Traditional Chinese Medicine
- Kunming 650500
- P. R. China
| | - Hong-Li Yan
- College of Pharmaceutical Science
- Yunnan University of Traditional Chinese Medicine
- Kunming 650500
- P. R. China
| | - Yan-Fang Wang
- College of Pharmaceutical Science
- Yunnan University of Traditional Chinese Medicine
- Kunming 650500
- P. R. China
| | - Qian Bi
- College of Pharmaceutical Science
- Yunnan University of Traditional Chinese Medicine
- Kunming 650500
- P. R. China
| | - Ting Zhang
- College of Pharmaceutical Science
- Yunnan University of Traditional Chinese Medicine
- Kunming 650500
- P. R. China
| | - Jie Yu
- College of Pharmaceutical Science
- Yunnan University of Traditional Chinese Medicine
- Kunming 650500
- P. R. China
- Engineering Laboratory for National Healthcare Theories and Products of Yunnan Province
| | - Gao-Xiong Rao
- College of Pharmaceutical Science
- Yunnan University of Traditional Chinese Medicine
- Kunming 650500
- P. R. China
- Engineering Laboratory for National Healthcare Theories and Products of Yunnan Province
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6
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Roos M, Pradère U, Ngondo RP, Behera A, Allegrini S, Civenni G, Zagalak JA, Marchand JR, Menzi M, Towbin H, Scheuermann J, Neri D, Caflisch A, Catapano CV, Ciaudo C, Hall J. A Small-Molecule Inhibitor of Lin28. ACS Chem Biol 2016; 11:2773-2781. [PMID: 27548809 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.6b00232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
New discoveries in RNA biology underscore a need for chemical tools to clarify their roles in pathophysiological mechanisms. In certain cancers, synthesis of the let-7 microRNA tumor suppressor is blocked by an RNA binding protein (RBP) Lin28, which docks onto a conserved sequence in let-7 precursor RNA molecules and prevents their maturation. Thus, the Lin28/let-7 interaction might be an attractive drug target, if not for the well-known difficulty in targeting RNA-protein interactions with drugs. Here, we describe a protein/RNA FRET assay using a GFP-Lin28 donor and a black-hole quencher (BHQ)-labeled let-7 acceptor, a fluorescent protein/quencher combination which is rarely used in screening despite favorable spectral properties. We tested 16 000 molecules and identified N-methyl-N-[3-(3-methyl[1,2,4]triazolo[4,3-b]pyridazin-6-yl)phenyl]acetamide, which blocked the Lin28/let-7 interaction, rescued let-7 processing and function in Lin28-expressing cancer cells, induced differentiation of mouse embryonic stem cells, and reduced tumor-sphere formation by 22Rv1 and Huh7 cells. A biotinylated derivative captured Lin28 from cell lysates consistent with an on-target mechanism in cells, though the compound also showed some activity against bromodomains in selectivity assays. The Lin28/let-7 axis is presently of high interest not only for its role as a bistable switch in stem-cell biology but also because of its prominent roles in numerous diseases. We anticipate that much can be learned from the use of this first reported small molecule antagonist of Lin28, including the potential of the Lin28/let-7 interaction as a new drug target for selected cancers. Furthermore, this approach to assay development may be used to identify antagonists of other RBP/RNA interactions suspected to be operative in pathophysiological mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Roos
- Institute
of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Ugo Pradère
- Institute
of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Richard P. Ngondo
- Institute
of Molecular Health Sciences, Department of Biology, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Alok Behera
- Institute
of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Sara Allegrini
- Institute
of Oncology Research, Oncology Institute of Southern Switzerland, 6500 Bellinzona, Switzerland
| | - Gianluca Civenni
- Institute
of Oncology Research, Oncology Institute of Southern Switzerland, 6500 Bellinzona, Switzerland
| | - Julian A. Zagalak
- Institute
of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Jean-Rémy Marchand
- Department
of Biochemistry, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Mirjam Menzi
- Institute
of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Harry Towbin
- Institute
of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Jörg Scheuermann
- Institute
of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Dario Neri
- Institute
of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Amedeo Caflisch
- Department
of Biochemistry, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Carlo V. Catapano
- Institute
of Oncology Research, Oncology Institute of Southern Switzerland, 6500 Bellinzona, Switzerland
| | - Constance Ciaudo
- Institute
of Molecular Health Sciences, Department of Biology, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Jonathan Hall
- Institute
of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
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7
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Bag SS, Jana S, Pradhan MK. Synthesis, photophysical properties of triazolyl-donor/acceptor chromophores decorated unnatural amino acids: Incorporation of a pair into Leu-enkephalin peptide and application of triazolylperylene amino acid in sensing BSA. Bioorg Med Chem 2016; 24:3579-95. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2016.05.069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2016] [Revised: 05/29/2016] [Accepted: 05/30/2016] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
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9
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Abstract
The tumor suppressor p53 plays a central role in anti-tumorigenesis and cancer therapy. It has been described as "the guardian of the genome", because it is essential for conserving genomic stability by preventing mutation, and its mutation and inactivation are highly related to all human cancers. Two important p53 regulators, MDM2 and MDMX, inactivate p53 by directly inhibiting its transcriptional activity and mediating its ubiquitination in a feedback fashion, as their genes are also the transcriptional targets of p53. On account of the importance of the p53-MDM2-MDMX loop in the initiation and development of wild type p53-containing tumors, intensive studies over the past decade have been aiming to identify small molecules or peptides that could specifically target individual protein molecules of this pathway for developing better anti-cancer therapeutics. In this chapter, we review the approaches for screening and discovering efficient and selective MDM2 inhibitors with emphasis on the most advanced synthetic small molecules that interfere with the p53-MDM2 interaction and are currently on Phase I clinical trials. Other therapeutically useful strategies targeting this loop, which potentially improve the prospects of cancer therapy and prevention, will also be discussed briefly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Zhang
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology and Tulane Cancer Center, Tulane University School of Medicine, 1430 Tulane Ave, Louisiana, LA, 70112, USA
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10
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Tsuganezawa K, Shinohara Y, Ogawa N, Tsuboi S, Okada N, Mori M, Yokoyama S, Noda NN, Inagaki F, Ohsumi Y, Tanaka A. Two-Colored Fluorescence Correlation Spectroscopy Screening for LC3-P62 Interaction Inhibitors. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013; 18:1103-9. [DOI: 10.1177/1087057113492200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
The fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS)–based competitive binding assay to screen for protein-protein interaction inhibitors is a highly sensitive method as compared with the fluorescent polarization assay used conventionally. However, the FCS assay identifies many false-positive compounds, which requires specifically designed orthogonal screenings. A two-colored application of the FCS-based screening was newly developed, and inhibitors of a protein-protein interaction, involving selective autophagy, were selected. We focused on the interaction of LC3 with the adaptor protein p62, because the interaction is crucial to degrade the specific target proteins recruited by p62. First, about 10,000 compounds were subjected to the FCS-based competitive assay using a TAMRA-labeled p62-derived probe, and 29 hit compounds were selected. Next, the obtained hits were evaluated by the second FCS assay, using an Alexa647-labeled p62-derived probe to remove the false-positive compounds, and six hit compounds inhibited the interaction. Finally, we tested all 29 compounds by surface plasmon resonance–based competitive binding assay to evaluate their inhibition of the LC3-p62 interaction and selected two inhibitors with IC50 values less than 2 µM. The two-colored FCS-based screening was shown to be effective to screen for protein-protein interaction inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Naoko Ogawa
- RIKEN Systems and Structural Biology Center, Yokohama, Japan
| | - Shun Tsuboi
- RIKEN Systems and Structural Biology Center, Yokohama, Japan
| | - Norihisa Okada
- RIKEN Systems and Structural Biology Center, Yokohama, Japan
| | - Masumi Mori
- RIKEN Systems and Structural Biology Center, Yokohama, Japan
| | | | - Nobuo N. Noda
- Microbial Chemistry Research Foundation, Laboratory of Molecular Structure, Institute of Microbial Chemistry, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Fuyuhiko Inagaki
- Faculty of Advanced Life Science, Department of Structural Biology, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Yoshinori Ohsumi
- Frontier Research Center, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama, Japan
| | - Akiko Tanaka
- RIKEN Systems and Structural Biology Center, Yokohama, Japan
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11
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Costa B, Grillone AF, Salvetti A, Rocchiccioli S, Iacopetti P, Daniele S, Da Pozzo E, Campiglia P, Novellino E, Martini C, Rossi L. An antibody-free strategy for screening putative HDM2 inhibitors using crude bacterial lysates expressing GST-HDM2 recombinant protein. Drug Test Anal 2013; 5:596-601. [PMID: 23733564 DOI: 10.1002/dta.1492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2013] [Revised: 03/27/2013] [Accepted: 04/09/2013] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Targeting the interaction of p53 with its natural inhibitor MDM2 by the use of small synthetic molecules has emerged as a promising pharmacological approach to restore p53 oncosuppressor function in cancers retaining wild-type p53. The first critical step in the experimental validation of newly synthesized small molecules developed to inhibit MDM2-p53 interaction is represented by the evaluation of their efficacy in preventing the formation of the MDM2-p53 complex. This can be achieved using the in vitro reconstructed recombinant MDM2-p53 complex in cell-free assays. A number of possible approaches have been proposed, which are however not suitable for screening large chemical libraries, due to the high costs of reagents and instrumentations, or the need of large amounts of highly pure recombinant proteins. Here we describe a rapid and cheap method for high-throughput screening of putative inhibitors of MDM2-p53 complex formation--based on the use of GST-recombinant proteins--that does not require antibodies and recombinant protein purification steps from bacterial cell lysates.
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Noguchi T, Oishi S, Honda K, Kondoh Y, Saito T, Kubo T, Kaneda M, Ohno H, Osada H, Fujii N. Affinity-based screening of MDM2/MDMX-p53 interaction inhibitors by chemical array: identification of novel peptidic inhibitors. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2013; 23:3802-5. [PMID: 23726030 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2013.04.094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2013] [Revised: 04/26/2013] [Accepted: 04/29/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
MDM2 and MDMX are oncoproteins that negatively regulate the activity and stability of the tumor suppressor protein p53. The inhibitors of protein-protein interactions (PPIs) of MDM2-p53 and MDMX-p53 represent potential anticancer agents. In this study, a novel approach for identifying MDM2-p53 and MDMX-p53 PPI inhibitor candidates by affinity-based screening using a chemical array has been established. A number of compounds from an in-house compound library, which were immobilized onto a chemical array, were screened for interaction with fluorescence-labeled MDM2 and MDMX proteins. The subsequent fluorescent polarization assay identified several compounds that inhibited MDM2-p53 and MDMX-p53 interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taro Noguchi
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
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13
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Herce HD, Deng W, Helma J, Leonhardt H, Cardoso MC. Visualization and targeted disruption of protein interactions in living cells. Nat Commun 2013; 4:2660. [PMID: 24154492 PMCID: PMC3826628 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms3660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2013] [Accepted: 09/23/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Protein-protein interactions are the basis of all processes in living cells, but most studies of these interactions rely on biochemical in vitro assays. Here we present a simple and versatile fluorescent-three-hybrid (F3H) strategy to visualize and target protein-protein interactions. A high-affinity nanobody anchors a GFP-fusion protein of interest at a defined cellular structure and the enrichment of red-labelled interacting proteins is measured at these sites. With this approach, we visualize the p53-HDM2 interaction in living cells and directly monitor the disruption of this interaction by Nutlin 3, a drug developed to boost p53 activity in cancer therapy. We further use this approach to develop a cell-permeable vector that releases a highly specific peptide disrupting the p53 and HDM2 interaction. The availability of multiple anchor sites and the simple optical readout of this nanobody-based capture assay enable systematic and versatile analyses of protein-protein interactions in practically any cell type and species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henry D. Herce
- Department of Biology, Technische Universität Darmstadt, 64287 Darmstadt, Germany
- These authors contributed equally to this work
| | - Wen Deng
- Department of Biology II, Center for Integrated Protein Science Munich, Ludwig Maximilians University Munich, 82152 Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
- These authors contributed equally to this work
| | - Jonas Helma
- Department of Biology II, Center for Integrated Protein Science Munich, Ludwig Maximilians University Munich, 82152 Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
| | - Heinrich Leonhardt
- Department of Biology II, Center for Integrated Protein Science Munich, Ludwig Maximilians University Munich, 82152 Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
| | - M. Cristina Cardoso
- Department of Biology, Technische Universität Darmstadt, 64287 Darmstadt, Germany
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