Effects of PCB exposure on serum thyroid hormone levels in dogs and cats

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and their hydroxylated metabolites (OH-PCBs) might disrupt thyroid function. However, there is no clear evidence of PCB exposure disrupting thyroid hormone (TH) homeostasis in dogs and cats. The present study conducted in vivo experiments to evaluate the effects of a mixture of 12 PCB congeners (CB18, 28, 70, 77, 99, 101, 118, 138, 153, 180, 187 and 202, each congener 0.5 mg/kg BW, i.p. administration) on serum TH levels in male dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) and male cats (Felis silvestris catus). In PCB-exposed dogs, the time courses of higher-chlorinated PCBs and L-thyroxine (T4)-like OH-PCBs (4-OH-CB107 and 4-OH-CB202) concentrations were unchanged or tended to increase, whereas those of lower-chlorinated PCBs and OH-PCBs tended to decrease after 24 h. In PCB-exposed cats, concentrations of PCBs increased until 6 h and then remained unchanged. The levels of lower-chlorinated OH-PCBs including 4'-OH-CB18 increased until 96 h and then decreased. In PCB-exposed dogs, free T4 concentrations were higher than those in the control group at 48 and 96 h after PCB administration and positively correlated with the levels of T4-like OH-PCBs, suggesting competitive binding of T4 and T4-like OH-PCBs to a TH transporter, transthyretin. Serum levels of total T4 and total 3,3',5-triiodo-L-thyronine (T3) in PCB-exposed dogs were lower than in the control group at 24 and 48 h and negatively correlated with PCB concentrations, implying that PCB exposure enhanced TH excretion by increasing TH uptake and TH conjugation enzyme activities in the dog liver. In contrast, no obvious changes in TH levels were observed in PCB-exposed cats. This could be explained by the lower levels of T4-like OH-PCBs and lower hepatic conjugation enzyme activities in cats compared with dogs. Different effects on serum TH levels in PCB-exposed dogs and cats are likely to be attributable to species-specific PCB and TH metabolism.

Evaluating Chemicals for Thyroid Disruption: Opportunities and Challenges with in Vitro Testing and Adverse Outcome Pathway Approaches

BACKGROUND

Extensive clinical and experimental research documents the potential for chemical disruption of thyroid hormone (TH) signaling through multiple molecular targets. Perturbation of TH signaling can lead to abnormal brain development, cognitive impairments, and other adverse outcomes in humans and wildlife. To increase chemical safety screening efficiency and reduce vertebrate animal testing, in vitro assays that identify chemical interactions with molecular targets of the thyroid system have been developed and implemented.

OBJECTIVES

We present an adverse outcome pathway (AOP) network to link data derived from in vitro assays that measure chemical interactions with thyroid molecular targets to downstream events and adverse outcomes traditionally derived from in vivo testing. We examine the role of new in vitro technologies, in the context of the AOP network, in facilitating consideration of several important regulatory and biological challenges in characterizing chemicals that exert effects through a thyroid mechanism.

DISCUSSION

There is a substantial body of knowledge describing chemical effects on molecular and physiological regulation of TH signaling and associated adverse outcomes. Until recently, few alternative nonanimal assays were available to interrogate chemical effects on TH signaling. With the development of these new tools, screening large libraries of chemicals for interactions with molecular targets of the thyroid is now possible. Measuring early chemical interactions with targets in the thyroid pathway provides a means of linking adverse outcomes, which may be influenced by many biological processes, to a thyroid mechanism. However, the use of in vitro assays beyond chemical screening is complicated by continuing limits in our knowledge of TH signaling in important life stages and tissues, such as during fetal brain development. Nonetheless, the thyroid AOP network provides an ideal tool for defining causal linkages of a chemical exerting thyroid-dependent effects and identifying research needs to quantify these effects in support of regulatory decision making. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP5297.

Mechanisms of Action Point Towards Combined PBDE/NDL-PCB Risk Assessment

At present, human risk assessment of the structurally similar non-dioxin-like (NDL) PCBs and polybrominated diphenylethers (PBDEs) is done independently for both groups of compounds. There are however obvious similarities between NDL-PCBs and PBDEs with regard to modulation of the intracellular calcium homeostasis (basal calcium levels, voltage-gated calcium channels, calcium uptake, ryanodine receptor) and thyroid hormone (TH) homeostasis (TH levels and transport). which are mechanisms of action related to neurobehavioral effects (spontaneous activity, habituation and learning ability). There also similarities in agonistic interactions with the hepatic nuclear receptors PXR and CAR. Several effects on developmental (reproductive) processes have also been observed, but results were more dispersed and insufficient to compare both groups of compounds. The available mechanistic information is sufficient to warrant a dose addition model for NDL-PCBs and PBDEs, including their hydroxylated metabolites.Although many of the observed effects are similar from a qualitative point of view for both groups, congener or tissue specific differences have also been found. As this is a source of uncertainty in the combined hazard and risk assessment of these compounds, molecular entities involved in the observed mechanisms and adverse outcomes associated with these compounds need to be identified. The systematical generation of (quantitative) structure-activity information for NDL-PCBs and PBDEs on these targets (including potential non-additive effects) will allow a more realistic risk estimation associated with combined exposure to both groups of compounds during early life. Additional validation studies are needed to quantify these uncertainties for risk assessment of NDL-PCBs and PBDEs.

PCB153 and p,p'-DDE disorder thyroid hormones via thyroglobulin, deiodinase 2, transthyretin, hepatic enzymes and receptors

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and DDT are widespread environmental persistent organic pollutants that have various adverse effects on reproduction, development and endocrine function. In order to elucidate effects of PCBs and DDT on thyroid hormone homeostasis, Sprague-Dawley rats were dosed with PCB153 and p,p'-DDE intraperitoneally (ip) for five consecutive days and sacrificed within 24 h after the last dose. Results indicated that after combined exposure to PCB153 and p,p'-DDE, total thyroxine , free thyroxine, total triiodothyronine, and thyroid-stimulating hormone in serum were decreased, whereas free triiodothyronine and thyrotropin-releasing hormone were not affected. Thyroglobulin and transthyretin levels in serum were significantly reduced. mRNA expression of deiodinases 2 (D2) was also suppressed, while D1 and D3 levels were not significantly influenced after combined exposure. PCB153 and p,p'-DDE induced hepatic enzymes, UDPGTs, CYP1A1, CYP2B1, and CYP3A1 mRNA expressions being significantly elevated. Moreover, TRα1, TRβ1, and TRHr expressions in the hypothalamus displayed increasing trends after combined exposure to PCB153 and p,p'-DDE. Taken together, observed results indicate that PCB153 and p,p'-DDE could disorder thyroid hormone homeostasis via thyroglobulin, deiodinase 2, transthyretin, hepatic enzymes, and hormone receptors.

Liver transcriptome analysis of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) exposed to PCB 153 indicates effects on cell cycle regulation and lipid metabolism

BACKGROUND

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are persistent organic pollutants (POPs) with harmful effects in animals and humans. Although PCB 153 is one of the most abundant among PCBs detected in animal tissues, its mechanism of toxicity is not well understood. Only few studies have been conducted to explore genes and pathways affected by PCB 153 by using high throughput transcriptomics approaches. To obtain better insights into toxicity mechanisms, we treated juvenile Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) with PCB 153 (0.5, 2 and 8 mg/kg body weight) for 2 weeks and performed gene expression analysis in the liver using oligonucleotide arrays.

RESULTS

Whole-genome gene expression analysis detected about 160 differentially regulated genes. Functional enrichment, interactome, network and gene set enrichment analysis of the differentially regulated genes suggested that pathways associated with cell cycle, lipid metabolism, immune response, apoptosis and stress response were among the top significantly enriched. Particularly, genes coding for proteins in DNA replication/cell cycle pathways and enzymes of lipid biosynthesis were up-regulated suggesting increased cell proliferation and lipogenesis, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

PCB 153 appears to activate cell proliferation and lipogenic genes in cod liver. Transcriptional up-regulation of marker genes for lipid biosynthesis resembles lipogenic effects previously reported for persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and other environmental chemicals. Our results provide new insights into mechanisms of PCB 153 induced toxicity.

Ghrelin affects the hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid axis in humans by increasing free thyroxine and decreasing TSH in plasma

OBJECTIVE

Ghrelin promotes a positive energy balance, e.g. by increasing food intake. Stimulation of the activity of the hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis promotes a negative energy balance, e.g. by increasing energy expenditure. We therefore hypothesized that ghrelin suppresses the HPT axis in humans, counteracting its energy-saving effect.

DESIGN AND METHODS

In this single-blind, randomized, cross-over study, we determined secretion patterns of free triiodothyronine (fT(3)), free thyroxine (fT(4)), TSH, and thyroid-binding globulin (TBG) between 2000 and 0700 h in 20 healthy adults (10 males and 10 females, 25.3+/-2.7 years) receiving 50 microg ghrelin or placebo at 2200, 2300, 0000, and 0100 h.

RESULTS

FT(4) plasma levels were significantly higher after ghrelin administration than after placebo administration from 0000 h until 0620 h except for the time points at 0100, 0520, and 0600 h. TSH plasma levels were significantly lower from 0200 until the end of the study at 0700 h except for the time points at 0540, 0600, and 0620 h. The relative increase of fT(4) (area under the curve (AUC) 0130-0700 h (ng/dl x min): placebo: 1.31+/-0.03; ghrelin: 1.39+/-0.03; P=0.001) was much weaker than the relative decrease of TSH (AUC 0130-0700 h (mIU/ml x min): placebo: 1.74+/-0.12; ghrelin: 1.32+/-0.12; P=0.007). FT(3) and TBG were not affected.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first study to report that ghrelin affects the HPT axis in humans. The early fT(4) increase was possibly induced by direct ghrelin action on the thyroid where ghrelin receptors have been identified. The TSH decrease might have been caused by ghrelin-mediated inhibition at hypothalamic level by feedback inhibition through fT(4), or both.