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Aspden JW, Murphy MA, Kashlan RD, Xiong Y, Poznansky MC, Sîrbulescu RF. Intruders or protectors - the multifaceted role of B cells in CNS disorders. Front Cell Neurosci 2024; 17:1329823. [PMID: 38269112 PMCID: PMC10806081 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2023.1329823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2023] [Accepted: 12/20/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2024] Open
Abstract
B lymphocytes are immune cells studied predominantly in the context of peripheral humoral immune responses against pathogens. Evidence has been accumulating in recent years on the diversity of immunomodulatory functions that B cells undertake, with particular relevance for pathologies of the central nervous system (CNS). This review summarizes current knowledge on B cell populations, localization, infiltration mechanisms, and function in the CNS and associated tissues. Acute and chronic neurodegenerative pathologies are examined in order to explore the complex, and sometimes conflicting, effects that B cells can have in each context, with implications for disease progression and treatment outcomes. Additional factors such as aging modulate the proportions and function of B cell subpopulations over time and are also discussed in the context of neuroinflammatory response and disease susceptibility. A better understanding of the multifactorial role of B cell populations in the CNS may ultimately lead to innovative therapeutic strategies for a variety of neurological conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- James W. Aspden
- Vaccine and Immunotherapy Center, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Matthew A. Murphy
- Vaccine and Immunotherapy Center, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Rommi D. Kashlan
- Vaccine and Immunotherapy Center, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Yueyue Xiong
- Vaccine and Immunotherapy Center, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Mark C. Poznansky
- Vaccine and Immunotherapy Center, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Ruxandra F. Sîrbulescu
- Vaccine and Immunotherapy Center, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
- Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
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2
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Pike SC, Welsh N, Linzey M, Gilli F. Theiler’s virus-induced demyelinating disease as an infectious model of progressive multiple sclerosis. Front Mol Neurosci 2022; 15:1019799. [PMID: 36311024 PMCID: PMC9606571 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2022.1019799] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2022] [Accepted: 09/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a neuroinflammatory and neurodegenerative disease of unknown etiology. However, several studies suggest that infectious agents, e.g., Human Herpes Viruses (HHV), may be involved in triggering the disease. Molecular mimicry, bystander effect, and epitope spreading are three mechanisms that can initiate immunoreactivity leading to CNS autoimmunity in MS. Theiler’s murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV)-induced demyelinating disease (TMEV-IDD) is a pre-clinical model of MS in which intracerebral inoculation of TMEV results in a CNS autoimmune disease that causes demyelination, neuroaxonal damage, and progressive clinical disability. Given the spectra of different murine models used to study MS, this review highlights why TMEV-IDD represents a valuable tool for testing the viral hypotheses of MS. We initially describe how the main mechanisms of CNS autoimmunity have been identified across both MS and TMEV-IDD etiology. Next, we discuss how adaptive, innate, and CNS resident immune cells contribute to TMEV-IDD immunopathology and how this relates to MS. Lastly, we highlight the sexual dimorphism observed in TMEV-IDD and MS and how this may be tied to sexually dimorphic responses to viral infections. In summary, TMEV-IDD is an underutilized murine model that recapitulates many unique aspects of MS; as we learn more about the nature of viral infections in MS, TMEV-IDD will be critical in testing the future therapeutics that aim to intervene with disease onset and progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven C. Pike
- Department of Neurology, Dartmouth Hitchcock Medical Center and Geisel School of Medicine, Lebanon, NH, United States
- Integrative Neuroscience at Dartmouth, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, United States
| | - Nora Welsh
- Department of Neurology, Dartmouth Hitchcock Medical Center and Geisel School of Medicine, Lebanon, NH, United States
- Integrative Neuroscience at Dartmouth, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, United States
| | - Michael Linzey
- Department of Neurology, Dartmouth Hitchcock Medical Center and Geisel School of Medicine, Lebanon, NH, United States
- Integrative Neuroscience at Dartmouth, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, United States
| | - Francesca Gilli
- Department of Neurology, Dartmouth Hitchcock Medical Center and Geisel School of Medicine, Lebanon, NH, United States
- Integrative Neuroscience at Dartmouth, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, United States
- *Correspondence: Francesca Gilli,
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3
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Kolahdouzan M, Futhey NC, Kieran NW, Healy LM. Novel Molecular Leads for the Prevention of Damage and the Promotion of Repair in Neuroimmunological Disease. Front Immunol 2019; 10:1657. [PMID: 31379852 PMCID: PMC6658885 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.01657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2019] [Accepted: 07/03/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuroinflammation is a prominent pathological feature of all neuroimmunological diseases, including, but not limited to, multiple sclerosis (MS), myasthenia gravis, neuromyelitis optica, and Guillain–Barré syndrome. All currently-approved therapies for the treatment of these diseases focus on controlling or modulating the immune (innate and adaptive) responses to limit demyelination and neuronal damage. The primary purpose of this review is to detail the pre-clinical data and proposed mechanism of action of novel drugs currently in clinical trial, with a focus on novel compounds that promote repair and regeneration in the central nervous system (CNS). As the most recent advances have been made in the field of MS research, this review will focus primarily on this disease and its animal models. However, these compounds are likely to be effective for a range of indications with a neuroinflammatory component. Traditionally, MS was thought to proceed through two distinct phases. The first, predominantly inflammatory stage, is characterized by acute episodes of clinical relapse, followed by periods of partial or total recovery with an apparent absence of overall disease progression. In the vast majority of patients, this relapsing-remitting disease subsequently progresses into a second more chronic, neurodegenerative phase, which is characterized by oligodendrocyte damage and axonal destruction leading to brain atrophy and an accumulation of disability. Recent work has shown that rather than occurring independently, both the inflammatory and degenerative phases may run concurrently. This, combined with evidence that early therapeutic intervention slows accumulation of disability and delays progression, highlights the need for novel therapeutic approaches that promote repair and regeneration early in the disease trajectory. Such compounds may be used as monotherapies or in conjunction with classical anti-inflammatory therapies. This review will highlight novel therapies currently in clinical trial, and likely to appear in clinical practice in the near future, focusing on compounds that target the immune system and/or enhance endogenous repair mechanisms in the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahshad Kolahdouzan
- Neuroimmunology Unit, Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Naomi C Futhey
- Neuroimmunology Unit, Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Nicholas W Kieran
- Neuroimmunology Unit, Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Luke M Healy
- Neuroimmunology Unit, Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montréal, QC, Canada
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4
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Mullin AP, Cui C, Wang Y, Wang J, Troy E, Caggiano AO, Parry TJ, Colburn RW, Pavlopoulos E. rHIgM22 enhances remyelination in the brain of the cuprizone mouse model of demyelination. Neurobiol Dis 2017; 105:142-155. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2017.05.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2016] [Revised: 05/04/2017] [Accepted: 05/29/2017] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
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5
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Gilli F, Li L, Campbell SJ, Anthony DC, Pachner AR. The effect of B-cell depletion in the Theiler's model of multiple sclerosis. J Neurol Sci 2015; 359:40-7. [PMID: 26671084 DOI: 10.1016/j.jns.2015.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2015] [Revised: 09/22/2015] [Accepted: 10/06/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
B cell depletion (BCD) is being considered as a treatment for multiple sclerosis (MS), but there are many uncertainties surrounding the use of this therapy, such as its potential effect in individuals with concurrent viral infections. We sought to discover what effect BCD, induced by an anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody, would have on Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus-induced demyelinating disease (TMEV-IDD). Mice were injected with the anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody 5D2, 14 days before or 14 days after infection with TMEV. Efficacy of depletion of B cells was assessed by flow cytometry of CD19(+) cells. Mouse disability was measured by Rotarod, viral load was measured by real time PCR for TMEV RNA. Binding and neutralizing antibody levels were determined in sera and CSF by ELISA, and in CNS by real time PCR for IgG RNA. Inflammation, microglial activation, axonal damage and demyelination were assessed using immunohistochemistry. 5D2-induced BCD was confirmed by demonstration of nearly absent CD19(+) cells in the blood and lymphoid tissue. Systemic and CNS antibody responses were suppressed during 5D2 treatment. Higher viral loads were detected in 5D2-treated mice than in controls, and the viral levels correlated negatively with IgG production in the brain. Overall, 5D2 caused worsening of the early encephalitis and faster progression of disability, as well as exacerbation of the pathology of TMEV-IDD at the end stage of the disease. These data indicate that BCD in humans might worsen CNS viral infections and might not improve disability accrual in MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Gilli
- Department of Neurology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Hanover, NH, USA.
| | - Libin Li
- Department of Neurology, University of Medicine and Dentistry-New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ, USA
| | - Sandra J Campbell
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Daniel C Anthony
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew R Pachner
- Department of Neurology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Hanover, NH, USA; Department of Neurology, University of Medicine and Dentistry-New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ, USA
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6
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Mokhtarian F, Safavi F, Sarafraz-Yazdi E. Immunization with a peptide of Semliki Forest virus promotes remyelination in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Brain Res 2012; 1488:92-103. [PMID: 23031637 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2012.09.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2012] [Revised: 09/19/2012] [Accepted: 09/23/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Remyelination is one of the elusive topics in treatment of multiple sclerosis (MS). Our previous studies have shown that Semliki Forest virus (SFV)-infected δ-knock-out (KO) mice did not exhibit the extensive remyelination, seen in wild type (WT) B6 mice, after viral clearance and demyelination. The Remyelination in SFV-infected WT mice started on day 15 and was completed by day 35 post-infection (pi), whereas the KO mice remained partially demyelinated through day 42 pi. Treatment with E2 peptide2 in incomplete Freund's adjuvant (IFA), resulted in higher antibody production and earlier remyelination in SFV-infected KO (day 28 pi), than WT mice. This finding suggested that anti-E2 peptide2 antibody could play a part in remyelination. In the current study, the effect of E2 peptide2 treatment was evaluated in the experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) model. Mice with established EAE were treated with E2 peptide2 in IFA to develop antibody. Treated EAE mice made significantly higher anti-E2 peptide2 antibody than untreated EAE group. Average clinical disease scores were significantly lower in peptide treated compared to untreated EAE mice. Furthermore, histopathological and immunohistochemical studies demonstrated increased remyelinating areas and higher number of activated oligodendrocytes and astrocytes, in treated compared to untreated EAE groups. Moreover, the anti-E2 peptide2 antibody showed higher binding to the myelinated areas of treated than untreated EAE mice. We conclude that treatment with, or antibody to, SFV E2 peptide2 triggers some mechanism that promotes remyelination.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antibodies, Viral/immunology
- Astrocytes/immunology
- Astrocytes/pathology
- Disease Models, Animal
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/immunology
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/pathology
- Encephalomyelitis, Autoimmune, Experimental/therapy
- Female
- Immunization
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Knockout
- Multiple Sclerosis/immunology
- Multiple Sclerosis/pathology
- Multiple Sclerosis/therapy
- Myelin Sheath/immunology
- Myelin Sheath/pathology
- Myelin-Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein/immunology
- Nerve Regeneration/drug effects
- Nerve Regeneration/immunology
- Oligodendroglia/immunology
- Oligodendroglia/pathology
- Peptides/immunology
- Peptides/pharmacology
- Semliki forest virus/immunology
- Spinal Cord/immunology
- Spinal Cord/pathology
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Affiliation(s)
- Foroozan Mokhtarian
- Department of Cell Biology, SUNY Downstate, USA; Department of Neurology, SUNY Stony Brook, USA.
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7
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Liu G, Muili KA, Agashe VV, Lyons JA. Unique B cell responses in B cell-dependent and B cell-independent EAE. Autoimmunity 2011; 45:199-209. [DOI: 10.3109/08916934.2011.616558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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8
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Scar less: a review of methods of scar reduction at sites of peripheral nerve repair. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 109:357-66. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tripleo.2009.06.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2009] [Revised: 06/30/2009] [Accepted: 06/30/2009] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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9
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Cui Q, Yin Y, Benowitz LI. The role of macrophages in optic nerve regeneration. Neuroscience 2009; 158:1039-48. [PMID: 18708126 PMCID: PMC2670061 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2008.07.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2008] [Revised: 07/18/2008] [Accepted: 07/20/2008] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Following injury to the nervous system, the activation of macrophages, microglia, and T-cells profoundly affects the ability of neurons to survive and to regenerate damaged axons. The primary visual pathway provides a well-defined model system for investigating the interactions between the immune system and the nervous system after neural injury. Following damage to the optic nerve in mice and rats, retinal ganglion cells, the projection neurons of the eye, normally fail to regenerate their axons and soon begin to die. Induction of an inflammatory response in the vitreous strongly enhances the survival of retinal ganglion cells and enables these cells to regenerate lengthy axons beyond the injury site. T cells modulate this response, whereas microglia are thought to contribute to the loss of retinal ganglion cells in this model and in certain ocular diseases. This review discusses the complex and sometimes paradoxical actions of blood-borne macrophages, resident microglia, and T-cells in determining the outcome of injury in the primary visual pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Q Cui
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 147K Argyle Street, Kowloon, Hong Kong, PR China.
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10
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Autoimmune Processes in the Central Nervous System. HANDBOOK OF NEUROCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR NEUROBIOLOGY 2008. [PMCID: PMC7121640 DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-30398-7_15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
In this chapter we discuss the factors that contribute to the unique immunological environment of the central nervous system and the mechanisms that may account for the development of autoimmunity within the CNS, including infectious agents as inducers of autoimmune disease. Consideration is given to a variety of human neurological diseases of autoimmune or presumed autoimmune etiology: autism, neuromyelitis optica, neuromyotonia, schizophrenia, lethargic encephalitis and stiff‐man syndrome. Also, we discuss autoimmunity as a possible mediator of CNS repair and examples of the protective effects of bacterial and helminth infections on CNS disease. Multiple sclerosis and models of multiple sclerosis are discussed with special attention given to the Theiler's virus‐induced demyelination model.
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11
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Abstract
In multiple sclerosis (MS), the presence of demyelinating plaques has concentrated researchers' minds on the role of the oligodendrocyte in its pathophysiology. Recently, with the rediscovery of early and widespread loss of axons in the disease, new emphasis has been put on the role of axons and axon-oligodendrocyte interactions in MS. Despite the fact that, in 1904, Müller claimed that MS was a disease of astrocytes, more recently, astrocytes have taken a back seat, except as the cells that form the final glial scar after all hope of demyelination is over. However, perhaps it is time for the return of the astrocyte to popularity in the pathogenesis of MS, with recent reports on the dual role of astrocytes in aiding degeneration and demyelination, by promoting inflammation, damage of oligodendrocytes and axons, and glial scarring, but also in creating a permissive environment for remyelination by their action on oligodendrocyte precursor migration, oligodendrocyte proliferation, and differentiation. We review these findings to try to provide a cogent view of astrocytes in the pathology of MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Williams
- Inserm, U711, Université Pierre and Marie Curie, Faculté de médecine, IFR 70, Paris F-75013, France, and Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Western General Hospital, Edinburgh, UK.
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12
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Winquist RJ, Kwong A, Ramachandran R, Jain J. The complex etiology of multiple sclerosis. Biochem Pharmacol 2007; 74:1321-9. [PMID: 17537409 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2007.04.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2007] [Revised: 04/25/2007] [Accepted: 04/27/2007] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis is a demyelinating disease which is presumed to be a consequence of infiltrating lymphocytes autoreactive to myelin proteins. This is substantiated by several lines of clinical evidence and supported by correlative studies in preclinical models. The development of new therapeutics for MS has been guided by this perspective; however, the pathogenesis of MS has proven to be quite complex as observations exist which question the role of autoreactive lymphocytes in the etiology of MS. In addition the current immunomodulatory therapeutics do not prevent most patients from progressing into more serious forms of the disease. The development of truly transformational therapeutics for MS will likely require a broad assault that expands beyond the concept of MS being an autoimmune disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raymond J Winquist
- Department of Pharmacology, Vertex Pharmaceuticals Inc., 130 Waverly Street, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States.
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13
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Mikol DD, Ditlow C, Usatin D, Biswas P, Kalbfleisch J, Milner A, Calenoff E. Serum IgE reactive against small myelin protein-derived peptides is increased in multiple sclerosis patients. J Neuroimmunol 2006; 180:40-9. [PMID: 16996143 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2006.06.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2006] [Accepted: 06/23/2006] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Though independent findings suggest roles for the allergic arm of the immune system and myelin-reactive antibodies in MS, myelin-reactive IgE has not been investigated. We have developed a radioimmunoassay that measures reactive IgE, IgG and IgA against short (5-6-mers) myelin protein-derived peptides bearing little to no sequence identity with other human proteins, and which might therefore be targets of a CNS-specific autoimmune attack. Here we show that, irrespective of clinical subtype, MS patients' sera are characterized by a higher frequency of measurable IgE against the peptides. Moreover, in controls with measurable IgE reactive against test peptides, IgG or IgA reactive with the same peptide epitopes is almost always present in vastly greater quantities, whereas in MS subjects peptide-reactive IgA or IgG is often undetectable. The sensitivity of the full assay, when considering overall positive a serum sample that has detectable autoreactive IgE without other competing Igs, is 69% (S.E.: 5%), with a specificity of 87% (S.E.: 9%). We speculate that IgE reactive against CNS target antigens may have both diagnostic and pathogenic significance, particularly if other peptide-specific, potentially blocking Igs are absent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel D Mikol
- Department of Neurology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA.
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14
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Libbey JE, Peterson LK, Tsunoda I, Fujinami RS. Monoclonal MOG-reactive autoantibody from progressive EAE has the characteristics of a natural antibody. J Neuroimmunol 2006; 173:135-45. [PMID: 16469392 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2005.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2005] [Revised: 12/15/2005] [Accepted: 12/21/2005] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
A.SW mice sensitized with myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG)92-106 is an animal model for progressive multiple sclerosis (MS). We isolated MOG-reactive monoclonal antibodies that were immunoglobulin (Ig)M and polyreactive, similar to natural autoantibodies. Upon analysis of the variable (V) light chains and the diversity (D) and joining (J) regions of V heavy chains, we found they were identical to germ line Vkappa19/28, Jkappa5, DFL16.1e and JH4, respectively. The sequence of the VH region had 99.7% and 100% identity at the nucleotide and amino acid levels, respectively, compared with the germ line encoded antibody, P3, of the Q52 family. Although A strain mice have been reported to have an insertion in BAFF-R, the receptor for BAFF (B cell activation factor from the tumor necrosis factor family), which could explain our results, A.SW mice have no mutations in BAFF-R.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane E Libbey
- Department of Neurology, University of Utah School of Medicine, 30 North 1900 East, 3R330 SOM, Salt Lake City, UT 84132-2305, USA
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15
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Ruohonen S, Khademi M, Jagodic M, Taskinen HS, Olsson T, Röyttä M. Cytokine responses during chronic denervation. J Neuroinflammation 2005; 2:26. [PMID: 16287511 PMCID: PMC1310517 DOI: 10.1186/1742-2094-2-26] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2005] [Accepted: 11/18/2005] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The aim of the present study was to examine inflammatory responses during Wallerian degeneration in rat peripheral nerve when the regrowth of axons was prevented by suturing. Methods Transected rat sciatic nerve was sutured and ligated to prevent reinnervation. The samples were collected from the left sciatic nerve distally and proximally from the point of transection. The endoneurium was separated from the surrounding epi- and perineurium to examine the expression of cytokines in both of these compartments. Macrophage invasion into endoneurium was investigated and Schwann cell proliferation was followed as well as the expression of cytokines IL-1β, IL-10, IFN-γ and TNF-α mRNA. The samples were collected from 1 day up to 5 weeks after the primary operation. Results At days 1 to 3 after injury in the epi-/perineurium of the proximal and distal stump, a marked expression of the pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α and IL-1β and of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 was observed. Concurrently, numerous macrophages started to gather into the epineurium of both proximal and distal stumps. At day 7 the number of macrophages decreased in the perineurium and increased markedly in the endoneurium of both stumps. At this time point marked expression of TNF-α and IFN-γ mRNA was observed in the endo- and epi-/perineurium of the proximal stump. At day 14 a marked increase in the expression of IL-1β could be noted in the proximal stump epi-/perineurium and in the distal stump endoneurium. At that time point many macrophages were observed in the longitudinally sectioned epineurium of the proximal 2 area as well as in the cross-section slides from the distal stump. At day 35 TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-10 mRNA appeared abundantly in the proximal epi-/perineurium together with macrophages. Conclusion The present studies show that even during chronic denervation there is a cyclic expression pattern for the studied cytokines. Contrary to the previous findings on reinnervating nerves the studied cytokines show increased expression up to 35 days. The high expressions of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines in the proximal epi-/perineurial area at day 35 may be involved in the formation of fibrosis due to irreversible nerve injury and thus may have relevance to the formation of traumatic neuroma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saku Ruohonen
- Department of Pathology, University of Turku, Kiinanmyllynkatu 10, 20520 Turku, Finland
| | - Mohsen Khademi
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institute, 17176 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Maja Jagodic
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institute, 17176 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Hanna-Stiina Taskinen
- Department of Handsurgery, Turku University hospital, Kiinanmyllynkatu 10, 20520, Turku, Finland
| | - Tomas Olsson
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institute, 17176 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Matias Röyttä
- Department of Pathology, University of Turku, Kiinanmyllynkatu 10, 20520 Turku, Finland
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Correale J, Villa A. The neuroprotective role of inflammation in nervous system Injuries. J Neurol 2004; 251:1304-16. [PMID: 15592725 DOI: 10.1007/s00415-004-0649-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2004] [Accepted: 09/02/2004] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The contribution of inflammation to the pathogenesis of several nervous system disorders has long been established. Other observations, however, indicate that both inflammatory cells and mediators may also have beneficial functions, assisting in repair and recovery processes. There is compelling evidence to indicate that in the injured nervous system, as in other tissues, macrophages are needed at an early stage after injury in order for healing to take place. Likewise, activated T cells of a particular specificity can reduce the spread of damage. This neuroprotective effect of T cells may be caused, at least in part, by the production of neurotrophic factors such as neurotrophin-3 or brain-derived neurotrophic factor. Interestingly, recent findings indicate that immune cells are able to produce a variety of neurotrophic factors which promote neuronal survival and may also mediate anti-inflammatory effects. Numerous cytokines are induced after nervous system injuries. Some cytokines, such as TNF-alpha, IL-1 and IFN-gamma, are well known for their promotion of inflammatory responses. However, these cytokines also have immunosuppressive functions and their subsequent expression also assists in repair or recovery processes, suggesting a dual role for some pro-inflammatory cytokines. This should be clarified, as it may be crucial in the design of therapeutic strategies to target specific cytokine(s). Finally, there is a growing body of evidence to show that autoreactive IgM antibodies may constitute an endogenous system of tissue repair, and therefore prove of value as a therapeutic strategy. Available evidence would appear to indicate that the inflammatory response observed in several neurological conditions is more complex than previously thought. Therefore, the design of more effective therapies depends on a clear delineation of the beneficial and detrimental effects of inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge Correale
- Raúl Carrea Institute for Neurological Research, FLENI, Montañeses 2325, 1428, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
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Pirko I, Ciric B, Gamez J, Bieber AJ, Warrington AE, Johnson AJ, Hanson DP, Pease LR, Macura SI, Rodriguez M. A human antibody that promotes remyelination enters the CNS and decreases lesion load as detected by T2‐weighted spinal cord MRI in a virus‐induced murine model of MS. FASEB J 2004; 18:1577-9. [PMID: 15319372 DOI: 10.1096/fj.04-2026fje] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The human monoclonal antibody rHIgM22 enhances remyelination following spinal cord demyelination in a virus-induced murine model of multiple sclerosis. Using three-dimensional T2-weighted in vivo spinal cord magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), we have therefore assessed the extent of spinal cord demyelination, before and after 5 weeks of treatment with rHIgM22, to determine whether antibody enhanced remyelination can be detected by MRI. A significant decrease was seen in T2 high signal lesion volume following antibody treatment. Histologic examination of the spinal cord tissue reveals that this decrease in lesion volume correlates with antibody promoted remyelination. To show that rHIgM22 enters the spinal cord and colocalizes with demyelinating lesions, we used ultrasmall superparamagnetic iron oxide particle (USPIO)-labeled antibodies. This may be considered as additional evidence to the hypothesis that rHIgM22 promotes remyelination by local effects in the lesions, likely by binding to CNS cells. The reduction in high signal T2-weighted lesion volume may be an important outcome measure in future clinical trials in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Istvan Pirko
- Department of Neurology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota 55905, USA
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18
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Noble
- Department of Biomedical Genetics, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY 14642, USA.
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19
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Lefranc D, Almeras L, Dubucquoi S, de Seze J, Vermersch P, Prin L. Distortion of the Self-Reactive IgG Antibody Repertoire in Multiple Sclerosis as a New Diagnostic Tool. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2003; 172:669-78. [PMID: 14688380 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.172.1.669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
To date, none of the myelin-associated Ag targets definitively discriminates between the immune response observed in multiple sclerosis (MS) patients and healthy subjects. However, it has been shown recently that analysis of global immune Ab profiles such as natural autoantibody reactivities can help to distinguish between normal individuals and patients suffering from various immune diseases. The aim of our study was to compare the global IgG immune response against brain self-Ags in sera from 82 MS patients and 27 healthy subjects. The analysis of the immune profiles was performed by Western blotting, and data were subjected to linear discriminant analysis. Particular patterns of IgG reactivity were found in healthy subjects, Sjögren patients, and MS patients. Moreover, this approach separated the three clinical forms of MS with a high concordance rate with the clinical data (kappa value, 77.8%). Our study suggests, for the first time, that serum IgG Ab repertoires are able to distinguish MS patients. In addition, our data suggest that patterns of IgG reactivity could model the pathological processes underlying the various forms of MS. Further characterization of such discriminant Ags could provide useful information regarding their potent role in pathogenesis or regulatory processes in MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Didier Lefranc
- Laboratoire d'Immunologie Equipe d'Accueil 2686, Faculté de Médecine, Pôle Recherche, 1 Place de Verdun, 59045 Lille Cedex, France.
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20
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Abstract
Remyelination in multiple sclerosis (MS) lesions has been described in several studies. It depends on the presence of myelinating oligodendrocytes and a functional interaction between these myelinating cells and axons. The imaging signal of remyelination in magnetic resonance imaging or spectroscopy is not yet defined. The present review will focus on the morphological appearance of remyelinating MS lesions, their correlation with oligodendrocyte pathology, and possible markers for remyelination in imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wolfgang Brück
- Institut für Neuropathologie, Charité, Campus Virchow-Klinikum, Humboldt-Universität, Augustenburger Platz 1, 13353, Berlin, Germany.
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21
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Stein TD, Fedynyshyn JP, Kalil RE. Circulating autoantibodies recognize and bind dying neurons following injury to the brain. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2002; 61:1100-8. [PMID: 12484573 DOI: 10.1093/jnen/61.12.1100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
While it is known that autoimmune cells can protect against cell damage following traumatic injury of the brain, the role of autoantibodies in brain injury is less clear. Here we present evidence in adult rats that following a cortical lesion of the brain, circulating IgG autoantibodies bind to dying neurons in the vicinity of the lesion. At intervals that ranged from 4 h to 7 days after making a unilateral lesion of visual cortex, we observed neurons near the lesion that were immunopositive for rat IgG. Many of these IgG-positive neurons were in advanced stages of degeneration. The magnitude of the immunostaining observed was directly proportional to the percent reactivity to rat IgG of the antibodies that were used. Preadsorption of the antibodies with rat serum eliminated the immunostaining. In addition, immunostaining for serum albumin in sections through the cortical lesion was negative, supporting the conclusion that the positive staining for IgG does not result from the passive diffusion of serum proteins into injured cells. Instead, the evidence presented here strongly suggests that naturally occurring IgG autoantibodies bind specifically to dying neurons in the injured brain. We propose that this autoantibody binding may participate in the phagocytosis and removal of injured neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thor D Stein
- Neuroscience Training Program, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, USA
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22
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Carmody RJ, Hilliard B, Maguschak K, Chodosh LA, Chen YH. Genomic scale profiling of autoimmune inflammation in the central nervous system: the nervous response to inflammation. J Neuroimmunol 2002; 133:95-107. [PMID: 12446012 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-5728(02)00366-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Using gene microarray technology, we found that inflammation in the central nervous system (CNS) not only induced the expression of many immune-related genes, but also significantly altered the gene expression profile of neural cells. Two unique groups of CNS genes were identified. The first group includes genes encoding ion channels, neural transmitters and growth factors. The second group includes genes that are important for nervous tissue regeneration. Additionally, a distinct pattern of gene expression was also identified in recovering animals. Thus, during autoimmune inflammation, the CNS actively responds to immune attacks by activating its own defense and repair genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruaidhrí J Carmody
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Abramson Family Cancer Research Institute, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
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23
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Debat H, Avalle B, Chose O, Sarde CO, Friboulet A, Thomas D. Overpassing an aberrant V(kappa) gene to sequence an anti-idiotypic abzyme with (beta)-lactamase-like activity that could have a linkage with autoimmune diseases. FASEB J 2001; 15:815-22. [PMID: 11259400 DOI: 10.1096/fj.00-0410com] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
A monoclonal antibody 9G4H9 that exhibits a beta-lactamase-like activity was previously obtained in accordance with the idiotypic network theory. This abzyme presents the most catalytic efficiency in amidase activity described in literature (kcat = 0.9 min-1). Some reports have demonstrated that functionality as complex as catalysis may be mimicked in this way. Comparison of the catalytic properties of both enzyme and abzyme previously allowed us to obtain better knowledge about 9G4H9 abzymatic machinery. In attempt to characterize this abzyme, the variable regions of kappa and heavy chain were cloned. We present a 'universal' method to clone the correct Vkappa gene to bypass aberrant Vkappa (abVkappa) produced by MOPC-21-derived hybridomas. Sequences obtained are compared in the GenBank database. The VH and Vkappa genes present some important sequence homology with autoantibodies suggesting a direct relationship between catalytic anti-idiotypic antibody and autoimmunity.
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MESH Headings
- Amino Acid Sequence
- Animals
- Antibodies, Anti-Idiotypic/genetics
- Antibodies, Anti-Idiotypic/metabolism
- Antibodies, Catalytic/chemistry
- Antibodies, Catalytic/immunology
- Antibodies, Catalytic/metabolism
- Antibodies, Monoclonal/genetics
- Antibodies, Monoclonal/immunology
- Antibodies, Monoclonal/metabolism
- Base Sequence
- Cell Line
- Cloning, Molecular
- Electrophoresis, Agar Gel
- Genes, Immunoglobulin
- Immunoglobulin Heavy Chains/genetics
- Immunoglobulin kappa-Chains/genetics
- Immunoglobulin kappa-Chains/metabolism
- Kinetics
- Mice
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Polymerase Chain Reaction/methods
- RNA/metabolism
- Sequence Alignment
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Affiliation(s)
- H Debat
- UPRES A 6022 Génie enzymatique et cellulaire, Université de Technologie de Compiègne, BP 20529, 60205 Compiegne Cedex, France
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24
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Warren KG, Catz I. Kinetic profiles of cerebrospinal fluid anti-MBP in response to intravenous MBP synthetic peptide DENP(85)VVHFFKNIVTP(96)RT in multiple sclerosis patients. Mult Scler 2000; 6:300-11. [PMID: 11064438 DOI: 10.1177/135245850000600502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis [MS], a demyelinating disease of the central nervous system associated with inflammation and gliosis, may be an autoimmune disease with T lymphocytes and autoantibodies to myelin protein(s). This study deals exclusively with B cell autoimmunity to myelin basic protein (MBP). T lymphocytes and anti-MBP share a common MBP epitope located between P(85) and P(96) which contains the essential contact residues H(88)FFK(91) for the trimolecular complex. The purpose of this Phase I open label clinical study was to monitor CSF anti-MBP in patients with chronic progressive MS subsequent to IV administration of synthetic peptide (sp) MBP82-98 namely DEN(85)VVHFFKNIVTP(96)RT. Fifty-six patients who participated in this project were assigned to two groups: a 'control group' of 15 patients who received IV saline injections every 6 months for the first 2 years of the study and a 'peptide group' of 41 patients who received IV spMBP82-98 from the beginning of the study and then infrequently subsequent to a rise of their CSF anti-MBP. In the control group antibody levels remained persistently elevated during the 2 year period. Patients in the 'peptide group' segregated into four kinetic profiles: Cohort A (15 patients) illustrated prolonged anti-BMP suppression into the normal range. Cohort B (10 patients) illustrated significant anti-MBP suppression into the normal range for shorter durations. Cohort C (eight patients) showed significant CSF anti-MBP suppression after the initial injection but lost the ability to suppress the autoantibody titer following subsequent injections. Cohort D (eight patients) failed to show significant CSF anti-MBP suppression. In conclusion the B cell tolerizing effect of spMBP82-98 segregated into four kinetic profiles; this molecular variability should be considered in attempts to develop specific 'peptide therapies' for the broad range of clinical profiles currently diagnosed as 'multiple sclerosis'. Multiple Sclerosis (2000) 6 300 - 311
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Affiliation(s)
- K G Warren
- Department of Medicine, Multiple Sclerosis Patient Care and Research Clinic, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta Canada, TG6 2G3
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